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)LOGICAL SERIES 








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:0ND BOOK 



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NEW Y 

Maynard.Me 

43,45 & 47 E 




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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



HUTCHISONS PHYSIOLOGICAL SERIES 



Our 
Wonderful Bodies 

and 

How to Take Care of Them 



u+a*\ 



Second Book — For Intermediate and 
Grammar Grades 






New York 
Maynard, Merrill, & Co., Publishers 

43, 45, and 47 East Tenth Street 



1 



A COMPLETE COURSE 

IN 

PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 

BY 
JOSEPH C. HUTCHISON, M.D., LL.D., 

Ex-President of the New York Pathological Society ; late Vice-President of the 

New York Academy of Medicine ; late Surgeon to the Brooklyn 

City Hospital ; late President of the Medical Society 

of the State of New York. 

NEW SERIES. 

Our Wonderful Bodies and How to Take Care of Them. First Book. 
128 pages. 

Our Wonderful Bodies and How to Take Care of Them. Second Book. 
223 pages. 

Physiology and Hygiene. A Work for High Schools and Academies. 
333 pages, i2mo, Cloth. 

Each book in the course complies with the laws requiring instruction in the 
physiological effects of alcohol and narcotics. 

Copyright, 1894, by Maynard, Merrill, & Co. 



Press of J. J. Little & Co. 
Astor Place, New York 



Preface 



This work has been designed for use in Intermediate 
and Grammar Schools for the purpose of teaching the 
first rudiments of physiology and hygiene. The aim has 
been to present in an attractive and simple manner the 
fundamental principles by which health is maintained. 
Necessarily, in a work so elementary as this, only an 
outline-sketch of anatomy and physiology can be pre- 
sented, but enough of these sciences will be found to make 
the subjects clear and comprehensible. All scientific 
terms have been avoided, and only familiar language has 
been used, so that the youngest pupil may read and under- 
stand it. 

The effects of alcohol and narcotics have been most 
carefully considered, and the facts presented in this con- 
nection are in accordance with the latest scientific conclu- 
sions. , The requirements of all state laws relating to the 
teaching of these subjects have been fully met. One 
fourth of the entire text of the book has been devoted to 

3 



4 PREFACE 

the consideration of alcohol and narcotics. At the end 
of each chapter will be found a statement of the effects of 
alcohol, tobacco, and other narcotics on the different 
organs or parts of the body. 

Acknowledgments are due Miss Clara F. Hall of 
Brooklyn, N. Y., for her valuable aid in the preparation of 
this book. 



Contents 



CHAPTER I 

PAGE 

The Framework of the Body 7 

CHAPTER II 
The Muscles 25 

CHAPTER III 
The Skin 39 

CHAPTER IV 
Cider and Alcohol 53 

CHAPTER V 
Beer and Wine 61 

CHAPTER VI 
Distillation and Adulteration 70 

CHAPTER VII 
Tobacco and Narcotics 77 

CHAPTER VIII 
Food and Drink 84 

CHAPTER IX 
Digestion 107 

CHAPTER X 
The Circulation of the Blood 124 

5 



6 CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XI 

PAGE 

Respiration 142 

CHAPTER XII 
The Nervous System 161 

CHAPTER XIII 
The Special Senses. . . 177 

CHAPTER XIV 
In Conclusion 205 

Appendix 209 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

SECOND BOOK 



CHAPTER I 

THE FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY 

i. The Human Body. — The human body is the 
dwelling-place upon earth of that part of us that 
lives and loves forever and ever, — the soul. Is that 
difficult for you to understand ? You know that 
you have arms, hands, feet, eyes, ears, and many 
other parts of the body. You know if you lose a 
finger, an arm, or a leg that you remain. A part of 
the body may be lost because of an injury ; but the 
part that makes you you and no one else, the soul, 
remains in the body as long as it is a suitable dwell- 
ing-place for it. 

2. The body is full of wonders, full of beautv. 
There are the strong, hard parts, and the delicate, 



8 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

soft ones. But all parts, strong and delicate alike, 
are perfectly planned for the support, preservation, 
and enjoyment of life. As the bones are essential to 
each and all of these purposes, it is fitting that we 
should begin the study of the human body with a 
description of them. 

3. The Bones and Their Uses. — The bones form 
the framework of the body. We depend upon 
them for strength in our arms, legs, and back, and 
for protection to the lungs, stomach, brain, and 
other soft parts of the body. The more delicate 
the organ, the more completely does Nature shield 
it. For example : the brain, which is soft in texture, 
is enclosed on all sides by the skull ; the eye, 
though it must be near the surface of the body in 
order that we may see well, is sheltered from injury 
by the skull and the bones of the face ; the lungs, 
requiring freedom of motion as well as protection, 
are surrounded by the movable chest, composed 
partly of bone and partly of muscle. 

4. The Size and Shape of the Bones. — The size 
and form of the bones vary greatly in different parts 
of the body. There are, however, but three gen- 
eral classes: the long bones, such as those of the 
limbs ; the short, as in the wrist ; and the flat, like 
the shoulder-blade. The long bones are com- 



THE FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY 



monly round and hollow at their middle portion, as 
greater strength is furnished by the same amount of 
material, if it is in the form of a tube, than if it is a 
solid pillar of the same length. 

5. The Structure of Bone.— Let us examine one 
of the long bones after it 
has been sawed through 
lengthwise (Fig. 1). We 
notice the hollow central 
cavity, containing an oily 
substance called the mar- 
row. We find that the 
outer surface is hard like 
ivory, and is pierced here 
and there with small open- 
ings for the admission of 
blood-vessels. The interior, 
especially at the ends, is 
comparatively light and 
porous. So that, although 
a bone be as hard as stone 
outside, it is by no means 
as heavy. If a thin section 
of bone be examined under 
the microscope, we discover that it is pierced by 
numerous fine tubes (Fig. 2). By means of these 




Fig. 1. — Section of Bone. 



IO OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

tubes the blood-vessels, which nourish the bones, 
run to and fro through their inner structure. 

6. The Composition of Bone. — Bone is parti)- a 

mineral and partly an animal substance, united in 

^ssy^y w» mmm tne proportion of two parts of 



PS the former with one of the latter. 

\\-£j : jt "A The animal substance is called 

v|%< gelatine, and the mineral substance 

Bill is lime. The bones of children 

^jjg contain more gelatine than lime. 

That is why they do not break 

easily, and when they do break, 

heal or unite rapidly. The bones 

FlG ' 2 '~Ione CTURE ° F chan £ e constantl y durin S child- 
hood, more lime and less gela- 
tine forming as the child grows older. In the 
bones of old people there is much more lime than 
gelatine. The lime makes the bones brittle. When 
their bones break they do not unite as well nor as 
rapidly as the bones of children. 

7. Properties of the Bones. — From these facts, 
made known to us partly by the microscope, we 
learn that the bones are not so simple and uninter- 
esting as at first appears, but are adapted with won- 
derful care and skill to all the purposes they are 
designed to serve. They are strong, but not heavy ; 




THE FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY II 

hard, but not brittle; somewhat elastic by reason of 
the gelatine, and vet solid and firm by reason of the 
lime. Their exposed portions are so made as to 
be hard and resisting, while the interior is more 
sponge-like, and well furnished with blood-vessels 
which nourish them and cause them to live. 

8. The Skeleton (Fig. 3). — The bones of the human 
are 206 in number, each of which is known to the 
anatomist by its own name. All of these bones 
bodv when united in their natural relations form 
the Skeleton. The greater number of the bones are 
arranged in pairs, one of each kind on each side of 
the frame. The skeleton contains three important 
cavities. 

9. Three Important Cavities (Fig. 4). — The first of 
these, surmounting the frame, is a box of bone, 
called the skull ; below this is a hooped case, or chest ; 
and lower down is a bony basin, called the pelvis. 
The two latter compose the trunk. The trunk and 
skull are kept in their proper places by the spinal 
column. Branching from the trunk are two sets of 
limbs : the arms, which are attached to the chest 
by means of the collar-bone and shoulder-blade ; 
and the legs, directly joined to the lower part 
of the trunk. 

10. Their Uses. — These three cavities are de- 



12 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 




Fig. 3.— The Skeleton. 



THE FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY 



13 



signed for holding and protecting the more delicate 
parts of the body. Thus, the 
skull, together with the bones 
of the face, shelters the brain 
and the organs of four senses 
— sight, hearing, smell, and 
taste. The chest contains 
the heart, lungs, and great 
blood-vessels, while the low- 
er part of the trunk holds 
and shields a variety of or- 
gans, chiefly those concerned 
in nourishing the body. 

11. The Joints (Fig. 5). — 
The bones where two or more 
place meet is called a joint, 
the connection being made 
in various ways according to 
the kind and amount of mo- Fig. 4.— Section of the 
tion desired. The movable Trunk showing the Cav- 

ITIES OF THE CHEST AND 

joints are connected by strong Abdomen. 
bands, called ligaments. These 

ligaments are of a silvery whiteness, and very 
tough ; so much so, that the bone to which a liga- 
ment is attached may be broken, while the ligament 
itself remains uninjured. When this connecting 




14 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

material of the joints is strained or torn by an acci- 
dent, we call the injury a " sprain." An injury of 
this sort is frequently quite as serious as the break- 
ing of a bone. 




Fig. 5. — Knee-joint. 

12. Motion in the Joints. — The ligaments then 
make the joints firm and strong. How are they 
rendered flexible and easy to move ? In the first 
place, the bones are made somewhat broad and 
flat at the ends, and are so formed that one will fit 
into the other. In the next place, these ends are 
covered with a thin layer or cushion of cartilage, — 
an elastic and very smooth material, which not only 
enables them to move easily over each other, but 



THE FRAMEWORK OE THE BODY I 5 

also serves, like the springs of a carriage, to deaden 
the force of jolts and jars. A third provis- 
ion for smooth motion is a thin sac placed 
between the ends of the bones, and 
containing a fluid resembling- the white 
of egg - . This fluid serves the same 
purpose in the joints as the oil that 
is used on the wheels of a carriage : 
it saves wear and noise and friction. 
But it is self supplied, and flows only 
so fast as it is used up by the motions 
of the joint. Some children have the 
habit of pulling their fingers so as 
to make them " crack." This is exceed- 
ingly wrong, for it is to a certain extent 
pulling the joints out of their sockets, 
and this may so loosen the parts as to 
cause lasting injury. 

13. The Spinal Column (Fig. 6). — The 
spinal column is commonly called the 
backbone, as if it were a single bone, 
whereas it really consists of a chain of 
26 small bones, named vertebra. It con- fig. 6.— Spinal 
tains the spinal cord. Column. 

14. The joints of the vertebrae are remarkable for 
the thick layers of cartilage which separate them. 



ID OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

The amount of motion between any two of these 
bones is not great ; but these little movements, 
taken together, allow considerable flexibility, or 
bending, in several directions. The abundant supply 
of the cartilages also adds greatly to the elasticity 
of the frame. It is due in part to this elastic mate- 
rial, and in part to the frequent curves of the spine, 
that the brain and other delicate organs are not 
more frequently injured by the shock of falls or 
missteps. During the day the constant pressure 
upon these joints, while the body is erect, dimin- 
ishes the thickness of the cartilages ; so that a per- 
son is not so tall in the evening as in the morning. 
The effects of this pressure pass away when the 
body is in a reclining position. 

15. The spine has very little time in which to rest 
or grow during the day, because its strength is de- 
voted to supporting the head, which is much heavier 
in proportion to its size than any other part of the 
body. At night, however, the spine can both rest 
and grow, unless w T e overtax it by sitting up too late 
and sleeping too little, particularly in childhood, 
when the bones have not their full growth. Some- 
times people, without thinking how serious the con- 
sequences may be, withdraw a chair from some one 
about to be seated. The sudden fall occasioned by 



THE FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY 1 7 

it results, frequently, in a serious spinal or brain 
trouble. The cartilages in the spine do their best 
to protect it and the brain ; but nature did not plan 
for such unnecessary injuries. 

1 6. The Growth of Bone. — The bones, like all 
other parts of the body, are constantly undergoing 
change, worn-out material passing off to make room 
for a fresh supply. This change has been shown in 
the following way : If an animal be fed with madder 
— a red coloring matter — for a day or two the bones 
soon become tinged ; then, if the madder be discon- 
tinued for a few days, the original color returns. 
If, however, this material be alternately given and 
withheld at short intervals, the bone will be marked 
by alternate rings of red and white. In a very 
young animal all the bones become red in a single 
day ; in old ones a longer time is necessary. The 
process of waste and repair in the hard bones, there- 
fore, is constantly taking place, and with astonishing 
rapidity. 

17. The Repair of Bone. — Nature's provision for 
uniting broken bones is very complete. First, as a 
result of the injury, blood is poured out around the 
ends of the bone. This blood is gradually absorbed 
and gives place to a watery fluid, which, thickening 
from day to day, at the end of two weeks becomes a 



1 8 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

jelly. This continues to harden by the deposit of 
new bone-substance until, at the end of five or six 
weeks, the broken bone may be said to be united. 
It is, however, still weak, and must be used care- 
fully a few weeks longer. Months pass before the 
union can be said to be complete, but when firmly 
united the bone is very strong, and if another acci- 
dent happens to it, it is quite as liable to break in 
some new place as at the point of union. 

1 8. Changes in the Skeleton.— We do not reach 
our full height until we are about twent}^-nve years 
old. Even after that the bones continue to increase 
in strength and hardness, but before that age they 
are soft and flexible because of the gelatine they 
contain. This is especially true in childhood ; and 
it is fortunate that it is so, since that condition is 
much more favorable to the steady and rapid growth 
of the bones than if they contained more of the lime, 
as is the case in old age when there is no occasion 
for change in the size or shape of the skeleton. The 
skull, however, is said to increase slightly in size 
during the whole life of those persons whose brains 
are continually employed in thought or study. This 
ver}^ flexibility of the bones, which in early life favors 
their steady growth and prevents their breaking 
easily, is sometimes the cause of serious deformity. 



THE FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY 



'9 



19. Babies should not be allowed to stand or 
walk much before the bones of the legs are strong 
enough to support the weight of the body. The 
bones will bend inward or outward if the baby 
stands or walks when too young. Nearly all babies 
walk as soon as their legs are strong enough for 
them to do so. They do not need urging. A bent 
position of the spinal column should not be per- 
mitted habitually in childhood, as it may result in a 
lifelong deformity. 

20. The ribs protect the lungs, heart, stomach, 
and other soft parts of the body. If tight clothing 





Fig. 7. — Ribs Showing the 
Effect of Tight Lacing. 



Fig. 8. — The Ribs in a 
Natural State. 



be worn above the waist, the ribs are bent inward, 
and the soft inner parts of the body are crowded to- 
gether, and are unable to do their work properly 
(Fig. 7)- 



20 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 



21. The Erect Position. — Youth is, in a great 
measure, the forming- as well as the growing period 
of the frame. Bad habits of position, early formed, 
become fixed in later life, and their results — as seen 
in contracted chests and round shoulders — are with 
difficulty remedied. Right habits, 
on the other hand, tend to produce 
an erectness of position which is favor- 
able, not alone to strength and health, 
but also to grace and ease. The 
following directions should be learned 
and practiced : hold the head erect 
with the chin somewhat near the 
neck ; expand the chest in front ; 
throw the shoulders back, keeping 
them of the same height on both 
sides ; maintain the natural curves of 
the spine, — as shown in Fig. 9. 

22. Tobacco. — You have learned 

that the bones are nourished by the 

blood ; that tubes or openings are 

Fig. q.-Cor^ct found in them through which the 

Standing Posi- nourishment is carried. When any- 

TION - thing poisonous is taken into the 

stomach or lungs, it finds its way all over the body, 

even into the bones. A poison is anything that 




THE FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY 21 

makes people sick or injures the growth of any 
part of the body. Tobacco is therefore a poison 
which injures the bones. It makes them less strong, 
and, in a greater or less degree, dwarfs their growth. 
That is one reason why men who smoke try to per- 
suade their sons not to do so until they are of age at 
all events. The fathers know, as all grown people 
do, and as you know now, that the bones will not be 
of the same support to the body if tobacco is used 
either for smoking or chewing, and particularly 
during boyhood or early manhood. 

23. Alcohol. — Alcohol also is a poison. It causes 
the bones to become weaker and more brittle than 
they should be. Alcohol taken in quantity prevents 
the proper digestion of food, and in that way de- 
prives the bones of the nourishment which they 
need. In consequence of this they become brittle 
and are more liable to be broken. When they do 
break it is much harder for them to reunite. As the 
bones should not be brittle in childhood or youth, 
that being the time when they should grow larger 
and stronger, you can see that it is injurious to 
drink cider, beer, or any liquor containing alcohol. 
It is injurious to any one to drink alcoholic liquors ; 
but those who have not formed the habit of using 
them need never suffer from their ill effects. 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 



TABLE OF THE SKELETON 

See Fig. 3, page 12. 
THE SKELETON CONTAINS 206 BONES. 



I. The Head (28 
bones). 

1. The Skull (8 bones). 

Forehead. 

Back of the Head. 

2 Bones forming the 

sides of the Head. 
2 Temples. 
2 Inner Bones of the 

Skull. 

2. TheFace(i4bones). 

2 Bones that form the 
Bridge of the Nose. 

3 Inner Bones of the 
Nose. 

2 Cheek-bones. 
2 Bones that help pro- 
tect the Eyes. 

2 Bones in the Mouth 
(Palate-bones). 

3 Jaw-bones (two upper 
and one lower). 

3. The Ears (6 bones). 
3 Bones in each Ear 

(Mallet, Anvil, and 
Stirrup). 



II. The Trunk (54 
bones). 

1. The Spinal Column 
(26 bones). 

24 Vertebrae, and two 
other bones below 
them. 

2. The Ribs (24 
bones). 

12 on each side; the 
upper seven are called 
"true ribs," the five 
lower ones are "false''' 
or "floating'" ribs. 
The ribs are all at- 
tached to the Spine, 
and the "true " ribs 
are also fastened in 
front to the Breast- 
bone. 

3. A small U-shaped 
bone in the upper 
part of the Neck, 
supporting the base 
of the Tongue. 

4. The Breast-bone. 

5. The two Hip- 
bones. 



III. The Arms, Legs, 
Hands, and Feet 
(124 bones). 

1. The Arms and 
Hands (64 bones). • 

2 Collar-bones. 
2 Shoulder-blades. 

1 Bone in each upper 
Arm (between Elbow 
and Shoulder). 

2 Bones in each lower 
or fore Arm (between 
Wrist and Elbow). 

8 Bones in each Wrist. 
5 Bones in each Palm. 
14 Bones in the Fingers 

and Thumb of each 

Hand. 

2. The Legs and 
Feet (60 bones). 

2 Thigh-bones (one in 
each Leg between the 
Knee and the Hip). 

2 Knee-pans. 

2 Bones in each Leg 
below the Knee. 

7 Bones in each Ankle. 

5 Bones in each Foot 
between the Ankle 
and the Toes. 

14 Bones in the Toes of 
each Foot. 



THE FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY 



QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER I 

1. What kind of parts form the body? 

2. For what are they planned ? 

3. What do the bones form ? 

4. For what do we depend upon them ? 

5. Into how many classes are bones divided ? Name them. 

6. Why are the long bones hollow ? 

7. Describe the long bones. 

8. How are bones nourished ? 

9. What substances form the bones? 

10. Why do not the bones of children break easily ? 

11. Why are the bones of old people brittle? 

12. Tell the properties of the bones. 

13. How many bones are there in the human body? What 
do they form ? 

14. Name the three important cavities of the body. 

15. What does each protect? 

16. What is a joint? How are movable joints connected ? 

17. Describe ligaments. What is a sprain ? 

18. What is cartilage ? Where is it found ? What is its use ? 

19. Of what use is the fluid which is contained in a sac 
between the bones ? 

20. Give the real name of the back-bone. Of what does it 
consist? 

21. Of what use to the spine is the cartilage ? 

22. During what part of the day are we the shortest ? Why ? 

23. Why, on account of the spine, should young people go to 
bed early ? 

24. What playfulness results sometimes in a serious spinal or 
brain trouble ? 

25. About how long does it take a broken bone to unite ? 

26. At what age do we reach our full height ? 



24 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

27. When is the most favorable time for the growth of the 
bones? 

28. In what persons does the skull continue to grow all 
during life ? 

29. Why should not babies be allowed to stand or walk when 
very young ? 

30. What harm is done if tight clothing be worn above the 
waist ? 

31. What directions are given for an erect position either in 
sitting or standing? 

32. When anything poisonous is taken into the stomach or 
lungs, where does it find its way ? 

33. What is a poison ? 

34. How does tobacco injure the bones? 

35. What do you know now about the use of tobacco ? 

36. What besides tobacco is a poison ? 

37. What effect has it upon the bones? 

38. Why, on account of the bones, should not young people 
drink cider, beer, or any alcoholic liquor? 

39. What persons need never suffer from the ill effects of 
alcohol ? 



CHAPTER II 

THE MUSCLES 



i. The Muscles.— We have said that the bones 
support and protect the body; but is it always 
motionless? Can we not move our arms, hands, 
legs, and feet? Do we not move from place to 




Fig. io.— The Muscles of the Upper Arm. 

place, as in walking or running? How are these 
movements made? They are made partly by the 
" will " and partly by the muscles. The word mus- 
cle means "a little mouse," and is supposed to refer 
to the peculiar sensation felt when a muscle is in 

25 



26 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

action ; for example : grasp the upper portion of 
the arm while the lower part is caused to move to 
and fro. The feeling- as of a small moving body in 
the front of the arm is caused by the action of the 
muscle. This muscle in the arm of a blacksmith 
becomes large and powerful. (Fig. 10.) 

2. The Uses of the Muscles, or the Flesh.— The 
muscles, nearly four hundred in number, form the 
great bulk of the body, and largely determine its 
weight and outline. They are nearly all designed 
to move the bones, but a few act upon the softer 
parts ; for example, those that move the eye, eye- 
lids, and lips. They help also to protect the bones 
from injury. 

3. The TENDONS. — Tendons, or sinews, are the ex- 
tremities of muscles, and are firmly fastened upon 
the bones. They are very strong, and of a silvery 
whiteness. They may be felt just beneath the skin, 
when the muscles are being used, as at the bend of 
the elbow or knee. We find more of them about 
the joints, particularly the wrist and ankle joints. 
The muscles in the front part of the thigh unite 
to form a single and very powerful tendon. This 
tendon incloses a small bone called the knee-pan, 
which increases the power and also protects the 
knee-joint. 



THE Mr sci.es 



?7 



4. Tendon of Achilles.— The largest tendon in the 
body is that which goes into the heel and is called 

the tendon of Achilles ( Fig. 1 1), after a Greek hero <>t 
that name. The water of the 
mythical river Styx was said by 
the ancients to cause any person 
who bathed in it to be invulner- 
able; that is, he could not be 
wounded. When Achilles was a 
baby, his mother, wishing to pre- 
vent his early death, held him by 
the right heel and dipped him 
into the river. The heel she held 
him by was not wet by the water, 
and it was in that place he re- 
ceiyed his death- wound. 

5. Structure of the Muscles — 

Fig. ii.— Tendon 
1 he muscles are composed ol asolt OF Achilles 

substance, of a deep red color, 
which closely resembles the lean meat of beef. 
Under the microscope we see that they are com- 
posed of layers and bundles of small fibers, and 
these are, in turn, made up of still finer fibers, called 
fibrillcz (Fig. 12). The fibers are beautifully marked 
by regular cross-lines, or stripes, about ten thou- 
sand to an inch. These circular markings are 




28 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

always present in the voluntary muscles, and they are 
known as the striped mtiscles. 

6. Voluntary and Involuntary Muscles. — The 
muscles are divided into two classes, the voluntary 
and the involuntary. In the first class are those 
which are used only when we wish or will to use 
them — as the muscles of the hand or arm. The 
second includes those which are not under the con- 
trol of the mind. 
The heart is an in- 
voluntary muscle. 
We cannot change 
its action by an 
effort of the will. 
During profound 

sleep, when the 
Fig. 12. — Muscular Tissue. .... 

will is entirely at 

rest, the heart continues to beat without cessation. 

The muscles concerned in breathing are partially 

under our control, but they are chiefly involuntary, 

and therefore continue to act while the mind is at 

rest or is fully occupied in work or play. 

7. Muscular Contraction. — Whenever we move a 
muscle it contracts or grows shorter, and its two 
ends are brought more nearly together. The rais- 
ing of the arm, the bending of the finger, and most 




THE MUSCLES 29 

of the ordinary movements of the limbs are effected 
by the will; but the will is not the only means of 
producing muscular action. Electricity or a sharp 
blow over a muscle will also produce it. 

8. A muscle cannot long remain contracted, but 
after a short time wearies, and is obliged to relax, 
or straighten itself out. After a rest it can again 
contract. For this reason it is more fatiguing to 
stand in one position for any great length of time, 
than to be walking. 

9. Relative Strength of Animals. — The amount 
of muscular power which different animals possess 
has been tested by experiment. It is found that 
the horse, though vastly heavier than man, is 
relatively not so powerful. Insects are remarkable 
for their power of carrying objects larger and heav- 
ier than themselves. Many of them can drag ten 
and even twenty times their weight. Some beetles 
have been known to move bodies more than forty 
times their own weight. 

10. Physical Strength. — The difference in strength 
as seen in different individuals is not due to any 
original difference in their muscles. Nature gives 
essentially the same kind and amount of muscles to 
every healthy person, and the power of one or the 



30 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

weakness of another arises largely from the manner 
in which these organs are used or disused. 

ii. Importance and Effects of Exercise. — Every 
organ needs exercise to keep it strong and well, 
and to obtain its best services. Exercise consists 
in a sensible use of the voluntary muscles, but its 
effects are not limited to the parts used. Other 
organs are made stronger by it. The heart beats 
more rapidly, the skin acts more freely, the brain is 
invigorated, and the appetite and power of diges- 
tion are increased. 

12. Change Due to Exercise. — The first effects of 
exercise, however, are upon the muscles themselves. 
If we examine a muscle thus improved by exercise, 
we find that it has become larger, that its color is 
of a darker red, and that the supply of blood-vessels 
has increased. Without exercise the muscle appears 
thin, soft, and pale. On the other hand, too much 
exercise, without sufficient rest, causes a similar con- 
dition. The muscle then becomes soft and weak, 
because it is worn out more rapidly than nature 
builds it up. 

13. Violent exercise is not beneficial, as strength 
is the result of a gradual growth. To gain the best 
results, exercise should be taken at regular hours 



THE MUSCLMS 3 I 

and during a regular period, the amount and time 
varying with the strength oi the individual. 

14. Different Modes of Exercise. — There are very 
lew who have not the power to walk. It requires 
no expensive apparatus, no previous training. 
Walking may be called the universal exercise. 
With certain foreign nations, the English especially, 
it is a very popular exercise, and is practiced habit- 
ually bv almost every class of society. Running, 
leaping, and other more rapid and violent move- 
ments, are the forms of exercise that are most 
enjoved in childhood. For the child, they are not 
too severe, but they may be so prolonged as to 
become injurious. Instances have been recorded 
where sudden death has resulted after violent play- 
ing, from overtaxing the heart: for example, we 
have the case of a little girl who, while skipping 
rope, and trying to excel her playmates by jumping 
the greatest number of times, fell dead from the 
bursting of a blood-vessel in the heart. 

15. Open-air Exercise the Best. — Carriage-riding 
is particularly well suited to invalids and to elderly 
people. Horseback exercise brings into use a 
greater number of muscles than any other one 
exercise, and with it there is a keen enjoyment 
which refreshes the mind at the same time. That 



32 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

form of exercise which interests and diverts the 
mind will yield the best results ; and as exercise in 
the open air does these two things, besides bringing 
into play nearly all of the muscles, it is the best. 
No indoor exercise, however excellent in itself, can 
fill the place of hearty and vigorous activity in 
the open air. 

1 6. Injurious Exercise. — If too little exercise is in- 
jurious, so also is too much. Violent exertions do 
harm ; they often cause great strain, and even last- 
ing injury to some part of the body. Children 
sometimes try to lift each other, but it is a bad thing 
to do, as each one takes pride in lifting as large a 
person as possible ; and in so doing risks over- 
taxing his own back, or straining some of the inner 
and delicate organs of the body. Sometimes ambi- 
tious children overtax their strength in carrying too 
much weight. It is praiseworthy, certainly, to be 
ready and willing to help another lift or carry a 
heavy burden, but it should not be done to the 
injury of the body. If it is injurious to allow babies 
to stand or walk before the bones in their legs are 
strong enough to support them, it is equally injuri- 
ous for their brothers or sisters only ten or twelve 
years older to lift them often and carry them about 
for any length of time. 



THE MUSCLES 33 

17. CAUTION. — When it is necessary for a person 
to go as rapidly as possible to some distant place, 
to the doctor's, perhaps, a mile or more away, the 
messenger will gain time by not starting out at full 
speed, but by increasing- it gradually. In cold 
weather it is very bad to run when first going out 
into the cold, as the temptation is to run with the 
mouth open so as to have sufficient air to breathe. 
This is especially harmful, as there is great danger 
of chilling the lungs and of producing sudden and 
serious illness. 

18. When a person overtaxes the heart, or, in 
other words, " gets out of breath," he should regard 
it as a signal to take rest. " Persons should neither 
walk, run, leap, nor play at any game, to the extent 
of producing permanent or painful exhaustion. All 
exercise should be attended with pleasurable feel- 
ings ; and when pain is produced by proper exer- 
cise, those who suffer should seek medical advice." 

19. Rest. — It is as necessary to perfect health that 
we should rest, as it is that we should work or 
exercise. We rest during sleep and in a change 
of employment. It is said that Alfred the Great 
recommended that each day should be divided in 
the following manner: Eight hours for work, eight 
hours for recreation or rest, and eight hours for 



34 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

sleep. This division of time is as good as any that 
could now be made, if it be borne in mind that, 
when the work is physical, \ve should devote the 
time of recreation to mental pleasures ; and when 
mental, we should rest by means of physical exer- 
cise. For instance : farmers, mechanics, and those 
who perform household duties can find rest in con- 
versation, games, and reading ; while book-keepers, 
professional men, and those who sit at their work 
need a good deal of exercise in the open air, in order 
that the brain and the nerves may be rested. 

20. Sleep. — During sleep all voluntary exercise 
ceases, the rapidity of the circulation and breathing 
diminishes, and the temperature of the body falls 
one or two degrees. In consequence, the body needs 
warmer coverings than during the hours of wake- 
fulness. During sleep, the body seems wholly at 
rest ; and the mind is also resting, if we except 
those involuntary mental wanderings which we call 
dreams. Nevertheless it is not an idle period. Nu- 
trition, or the nourishing of the body, now takes 
place. While we are awake or exercising, the pro- 
cess of pulling down or wearing out goes on; but 
when we are asleep, that of building up and strength- 
ening takes place. If the amount of sleep is insuffi- 
cient, the effects are seen in the lifelessness and 



THE MUSCLES 35 

weakness which follow. When any one lies down 
to take a nap in the daytime, it is always wise to 
throw a light covering over the shoulders and feet. 

21. Necessary Amount of Sleep. — Young people 
between ten and fourteen years of age need at 
least ten hours of sleep. Frederick the Great re- 
quired only five hours of sleep daily, and Bonaparte 
could pass days with only a few hours of rest. 
But this long-continued absence of sleep is attended 
with danger. 

22. There are instances related of sailors falling 
asleep on the gun-deck of their ships while in action. 
On the retreat from Moscow the French soldiers 
would fall asleep on the march, and could only be 
aroused by the cry, " The Cossacks are coming ! " 
Tortured persons are said to have slept upon the 
rack in the intervals of their torture. These in- 
stances, and others, show the imperative demand 
which nature makes for rest in sleep. 

23. Tobacco. — The muscles are nourished, as the 
bones are, by the blood. Whatever poison affects 
the bones affects the muscles also. Tobacco robs 
the muscles of their firmness, and they become soft. 
On account of this, they are not so helpful in the 
support of the body or in the protection of the 
bones. By and by you will know how the blood 



36 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 



nourishes the bones and muscles ; and you know 
now that some things must never be eaten, because 
m m they are poisonous, or unfit to 

tl^fe/V^^ eat. Tobacco is a poison of such 
*'^k a peculiar nature that although 
it is not taken directly into the 
stomach, it makes people sick 
when they begin the use of it. 
The stomach is a good friend to 
us, and it tries to show, by its 
own sickness, the harm there is 
in the use of tobacco. If the 
use of tobacco is persisted in, 
the stomach becomes less sensi- 
tive to it, but the muscles are 
Fig. 13.— Tobacco Plant, greatly weakened. 

24. Alcohol. — Alcohol makes the muscles thinner 
and weaker by preventing their proper nourish- 
ment, or larger and weaker by a deposit of fat 
which is not natural or healthy. Beer is more lia- 
ble than any other liquor to produce this unhealthy 
fat. When the muscles are weakened in any way 
they cannot be relied upon to help us when we 
need them. When alcohol is taken in large quan- 
tities the muscles of the tongue do not move nat- 
urally and the speech is indistinct ; the hands be- 




THE musci.es 37 

come unsteady and lose their firmness and delicacy 
of touch ; and the muscles of the legs become weak- 
ened, giving the person so afflicted an unsteady 
gait, and the liability of falling. 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER II 

i. How are movements of the body made? 

2. What does the word " muscle " mean ? 

3. Of what use are the muscles? 

4. What are the tendons ? What is another name for 
them ? 

5. Where do we find the most of them ? 

6. What is the largest tendon ? 

7. Tell the story of Achilles. 

8. Of what are muscles composed ? 

9. What does the microscope show regarding them ? 

10. What is the difference between the voluntary and invol- 
untary muscles ? 

1 1. When a muscle is caused to act, what change takes place 
in it ? 

12. How do the muscles rest when they become wearied ? 

13. How much weight can a man drag? 

14. Is a horse stronger in proportion to his size than a man ? 

15. In what does the strength or weakness of a healthy per- 
son consist ? 

16. Why does every organ need exercise? 

17. In what does exercise consist ? 

18. How are other organs made stronger by it ? 

19. Describe the appearance of a muscle that has been im- 
proved by exercise. 

20. When do muscles appear thin, soft, and pale ? 

21. To gain the best results, how should exercise be taken ? 

22. What may be called the universal exercise ? 



38 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

23. What exercise is well suited to invalids and elderly 
people ? 

24. Why is horseback-riding especially beneficial ? 

25. What exercise yields the best results ? 

26. Should children lift one another ? Why not ? 

27. Is it wise to lift or carry heavy burdens? Why not? 

28. How can time be gained by a messenger when haste is 



necessary 



29. Why is it harmful to run in cold weather ? 

30. What should be regarded as a signal to take rest ? 

31. What is as necessary to perfect health as exercise ? 

32. When do we rest ? 

33. How can school children rest? 

34. Why is the body cooler during sleep ? 

35. What takes place when we are sleeping ? 

36. How can it be told that people do not have sufficient 
sleep ? 

37. How much sleep do you need? 

38. Mention a few instances showing the demand nature 
makes for sleep. 

39. How are the muscles nourished ? 

40. What effect has tobacco upon the muscles? 

41. How does tobacco affect people when they begin to use 
it? 

42. What happens to the stomach if the use of tobacco is 
persisted in ? 

43. How does alcohol make the muscles thinner and weaker? 

44. How does it make them larger and weaker ? 

45. W T hat liquor is most liable to produce unhealthy fat? 

46. What effect has alcohol upon the tongue, hands, and 
legs? 



CHAPTER III 

THE SKIN 

i. THE Skin (Fig. 14). — The skin is the outer cover- 
ing of the body. The parts directly beneath it are 
very sensitive, as is shown whenever by accident 
the skin is broken or torn off, the bared surface 
being very tender and sensitive even to exposure 
to the air. 

2. The Structure of the Skin. — When examined 
closely, the skin is found to be made up of two lay- 
ers — the outer and the inner. The inner one is 
called the dermis or true skin ; the outer one is the 
epidermis or scarf-skin. These two layers are closely 
united, but they may be separated from each other. 
This separation takes place whenever, from a burn 
or other cause, a blister is formed ; a watery fluid 
forms between the two layers, and lifts the epider- 
mis from the true skin. Another name for the true 
skin is cutis, and for the scarf-skin is cuticle. 

3. The Scarf-skin.— Of the two layers, the outer is 
the thinner one, and has the appearance of a whitish 

39 



40 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 



membrane. It is tough and elastic ; it has no feel- 
ing, and does not bleed when cut. On the palm of 
the hand, where the scarf-skin is especially thick, a 
needle may be run in and out of it without causing 
pain or drawing blood. If it be magnified, it will 
be found to be composed of numberless flat cells or 
scales, arranged layer upon layer. Its thickness 
varies in different parts of the body. Where ex- 
posed to use it is thick and horn- 
like, as may be seen on the soles 
of the feet, or on the palms 
of the hands of those who are 
accustomed to perform much 
manual labor. 

4. The True Skin. — The true 
skin lies beneath the scarf-skin. 
It is firm, elastic, and very sen- 
sitive, and freely supplied with 
blood-vessels. A needle enter- 
ing it not only produces pain, 
The surface 
but is covered 
with minute 
elevations, called papilla. These are arranged in rows 
or ridges, such as those which can be seen plainly in 
the palm and thumb. These papilias contain blood- 




Fig. 14. — Magnified 
Piece of Skin showing but draws blood. 
Scarf-skin, True Skin, j s DOt sm00 th 
Pores, etc. 

here and there 



THE SKIN 41 

vessels and nerves, and are largely concerned in the 
sense of touch; they are abundant where the touch 
is most delicate, as at the ends of the fingers. 

5. Changes in the Skin.— Like all other parts of the 
body, the scarf-skin is constantly being worn out ; it 
dries, shrivels, and falls from the body in the form 
of fine flakes or scales. In the scalp these scales 
form the dandruff. As fast as it wears away new 
skin is formed from beneath. This seemingly simple 
process is very important, for by it a uniform thick- 
ness is secured to the covering of the body. If it 
were otherwise, this covering would grow thicker 
as it grew older, like the bark of a tree, and prevent 
the escape of perspiration, which would be fatal to 
life. The growth of the true skin is provided for in 
the blood-vessels which abound in it. 

6. The Nails. — The nails grow out from the skin 
near the ends of the fingers and toes, and serve to 
protect them. Below the skin which covers the 
lower part of the nail is the root. The nail, if lost, 
will grow again in a short time, if the root is not 
injured. We can see how rapidly the nails grow 
by marking one near the root. Little by little the 
mark will advance until it reaches the end of the 
finger-nail. The finger-nails enable us to grasp 
more firmly and to pick up small objects. 



42 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 



7. Care of the Nails. — We should never bite the 
nails, as it injures the sense of touch and gives to 
the ends of the fingers an ugly shape. Trim the 
nails with scissors, but not too closely. Never 
scrape them with anything hard, as it will injure 
the polish. Push the skin back carefully about the 
lower part, near the root, with something blunt. 
This will prevent hang-nails, which we sometimes 
find so troublesome. 

8. The Hair. — The hair (Fig. 15), like the nails, 

grows out of the skin. 
a Each hair grows from 

a little sac or pocket 
in the true skin. This 
sac is filled with oily 
matter, which keeps 
the hair moist and 
glossy. To keep the 
scalp clean, the hair 
should be well 
brushed, and occasion- 
ally washed. The 
growth of the hair is 
in one direction only 
— that of length. The hair is very elastic. Hold a 
hair, several inches long, firmly between the thumb 




— a, b, The Root of a Hair, 

HIGHLY MAGNIFIED. 



THE SKIN 43 

and forefinger of each hand, and stretch it gent 1 v. 
Its elasticity will then be felt. 

9. The Color of the Hair. — The color of the hair 
is given to it bv coloring matter with which little 
sacs in the layer of the true skin are filled. When 
these sacs begin to dry up, as when people grow 
old, or from some other cause, the hair turns gray. 
Sometimes a sudden fright or a great sorrow has 
been known to turn the hair white in a few hours. 

The hair is a protection to the head, as it shields 
the brain from extremes of heat and cold, and soft- 
ens the force of blows upon the scalp. 

10. The Complexion. — In the deeper cells of the 
scarf-skin lies a coloring matter consisting of minute 
colored grains. On this coloring matter complexion 
depends ; and its presence in less or greater amount 
occasions the difference in color that exists between 
the light and the dark races of men, and between the 
blonde and brunette of the white races. Freckles 
are due to an irregular increase of coloring matter. 

11. The Perspiratory Glands. — There are count- 
less numbers of little sweat-glands in the true skin. 
They consist of fine tubes which measure about one 
tenth of an inch in length. In diameter they are 
about one three-hundredth of an inch, and upon 
parts of the body there are not far from three 



44 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

thousand of these glands to the square inch. Their 
whole number in the body is therefore very great ; 
and it is said that if they were all united, end to 
end, they would make a tube three miles long. 

12. The Sensible and Insensible Perspiration. — The 
pores of the skin are constantly giving out a watery 
fluid ; but, under ordinary circumstances, there is 
no moisture apparent upon the surface, for it passes 
off in the form of vapor as rapidly as it is formed. 
This is called insensible perspiration. Under the 
influence of heat or exercise, however, this fluid is 
formed more abundantly, and appears on the surface 
in minute, colorless drops. It is then termed sensi- 
ble perspiration. Water is the chief part of this fluid. 
The average amount escaping daily from the body 
by perspiration is not far from two pints. 

13. The skin is kept from becoming hard and dry 
by little oil-sacs which are constantly discharging 
their contents upon it. The perspiration contains 
salt which would irritate the skin if it were not for 
this oily protection. 

14. The Uses of the Perspiration. — Besides freeing 
the blood from this large amount of water, with the 
worn-out matter which it contains, perspiration reg- 
ulates the temperature of the body, as in evapo- 
rating it cools the surface. In hot weather the 



THE SKIN 45 

perspiration flows more freely, and the cooling 
influence increases in proportion. 

15. The importance of perspiration is shown bv 
the effects that often follow its temporary interrup- 
tion, namely, headache, fever, and the other symp- 
toms that accompany " taking cold." When its flow 
is stopped for a considerable time, the consequences 
are very serious. 

16. When one has been exercising freely, or has 
been heated in any way, and the perspiration has 
increased accordingly, great care should be taken to 
avoid draughts of air. It will not do to cool the 
body too suddenly. It is natural that one should be 
thirsty then, as the increased perspiration has made 
more water a necessity. It is dangerous to drink 
iced water at such times, however, and for the same 
reason that draughts of air should be avoided. 

17. The Importance of Bathing. — From what has 
already been said, it is evident that health must 
greatly depend upon keeping the skin clean. " He 
who keeps the skin ruddy and soft, shuts many 
gates against disease." As the watery portion of 
the perspiration evaporates, the solid matter is 
left behind ; there also remain the scales of the 
dead scarf-skin and the excess of oily matter. The 
healthful action of the skin requires that these 



46 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

impurities be removed by the frequent application 
of water. 

1 8. In warm climates and during hot weather 
bathing is especially necessary. For a person in 
good health a daily cold bath is advisable. To this 
should be added occasionally a tepid bath, with 
soap, water alone not being sufficient to remove 
impurities of an oily nature. You have, perhaps, 
heard that " The Three Greatest Physicians" are 
"water, exercise, and diet." 

19. There is a maxim by the chemist Liebig to 
the effect that the civilization of a nation is high in 
proportion to the amount of soap that it uses ; and 
that it is low in proportion to its use of perfumes. 
In some degree we may apply the same test to 
the refinement of an individual. The soap removes 
impurity ; the perfume covers while retaining it. 

20. The Diffebent Kinds of Baths. — All persons 
are not able to use the cold bath. When the health 
is vigorous, a feeling of increased strength and 
added warmth upon the surface will show that it is 
beneficial. Where these pleasurable feelings are not 
experienced, but rather a chill and sense of weak- 
ness follow, we are warned that the system will not 
endure cold bathing. 

21. Hot Baths. — It should also be borne in mind 



THE SKIN 47 

that the warm or hot bath cannot be continued so 
long or repeated so frequently as the cold, on account 
of the weakening- effect of unusual heat so applied 
to the body. For persons who are not in robust health 
one warm bath each week is sufficient. Sea-bathing 
is even more invigorating than fresh- water bathing. 
Those who cannot endure the fresh water are often 
benefited by the salt-water baths. 

22. Time and Manner of Bathing. — A person in 
sound health may take a bath at almost any time, 
except directly after a full meal. The most appro- 
priate time is about three hours after a meal, the 
noon-hour being probably the best. For the cold 
bath, taken rapidly, no time is better than immedi- 
ately after rising. Those beginning the use of cold 
baths should first try them at yo° Fahr., and gradu- 
ally use those of a lower temperature. From five to 
twenty minutes may be considered the proper limit 
of time to remain in a bath ; but a sensation of chilli- 
ness is a signal to withdraw instantly, whether at 
home or at the sea-side. Two sea-baths may be 
taken daily ; one of any other kind is sufficient. 

23. Effects of Bathing. — The body should be warm, 
rather than cold, when stepping into the bath ; and 
after it the skin should be thoroughly dried with a 
coarse towel. It is best to continue friction until 



4° OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

there is a sensation of warmth or " glow " throughout 
the entire surface. This is the test of the good 
effects of the bath. If this does not occur, a short 
walk may be taken, especially in the sunshine. One 
should not take a cold bath immediately after 
exercising freely or when the body is over-heated. 
This is even more dangerous than to remain in 
a draught or to drink iced water when in a perspi- 
ration. 

24. The Sun-bath. — We may judge somewhat of 
the benefits of the sun by observing the unnat- 
ural and undeveloped condition of plants and ani- 
mals which are deprived of light. Plants become 
blanched and tender ; the fish of subterranean 
lakes, where the light of day does not enter, are 
undersized, and have no eyes ; children growing up 
in mines are sallow, pale, and in some cases de- 
formed. 

25. Clothing. — More harm arises from using too 
little than too much clothing, especially in a change- 
ful climate like our own. Some one has said, " We 
should put off our winter clothing on midsummer's 
day, and put it on again the day after." The prac- 
tice of exposing the limbs and necks of young chil- 
dren is very dangerous. 

26. Keep Wrists and Ankles Warm. — If the wrists 



THE SKIN 49 

and ankles are kept warm in cold weather it adds 
greatly to the comfort of the body. Wristers are 
almost as great a necessity to some people as warm 
gloves or mittens, and justly so, too; for the blood 
is very near the surface in the wrists. Low shoes 
should never be worn out-of-doors in winter. The 
ankles should always be well protected from the 
cold and wet. To avoid sore throats keep the feet 
dry ; to avoid lung troubles keep the feet and ankles 
warm. 

27. Air the Clothing. — As the skin is constantly 
acting, by night as well as by day, it is conducive 
both to cleanliness and comfort to change the cloth- 
ing entirely on retiring for the night. The day 
clothing should be aired during the night, and the 
bedding should be aired in the morning, for the same 
reason. 

28. Woolen clothing of all kinds, and bedding, 
should be hung out frequently in the open air and 
sunshine to be sweetened. Feather-beds, mattresses, 
and pillows should be sunned occasionally for the 
same reason. If we would have our sleep refresh- 
ing, the bedding and pillows should always be 
sweet. 

29. The Caee of the Sick. — In the care of the 
sick much depends upon the cleanliness and fresh- 



SO OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

ness of the clothing and bed-linen used by the 
patient. Even a headache is made more bearable, 
sometimes, when a fresh, cool pillow-case is made 
to replace one that has been used for hours. Damp 
bedding should never be used by the sick or well. 
See to it that it is thoroughly dry before putting 
it away or using it. Clean clothes, with plenty of 
pure air and sunlight, are often the best medicines. 
These suggestions are not to girls alone ; they are 
to boys too, just as well. If any one, boy or girl, 
has the wish to make a sick person more comfort- 
able, he will find the way to do it, or to try to 
do it. 

30. Tobacco. — Tobacco not only injures the bones 
and muscles, but it is harmful to the skin. Many 
people who use tobacco freely become pale and sal- 
low. The poison of tobacco finds its way through 
the skin, giving it a peculiar odor, and discoloring 
it by its bad effect upon the liver. 

31. Alcohol. — Cider, beer, whiskey, or any liquor 
containing alcohol is bad for the skin. People who 
drink alcoholic liquors in quantity become pale and 
yellow like those who use tobacco freely ; or they 
have very red faces. In the latter case the skin 
becomes in time coarse and thick, losing both its 
beauty and its delicacy. 



THE SKIN 51 



QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER III 

1. What is the skin ? 

2. How many layers of skin are there ? 

3. What is the true skin ? Scarf-skin? Epidermis ? Cutis? 
Cuticle? 

4. Describe the scarf-skin. 

5. Describe the true skin. 

6. How is the true skin nourished? 

7. Of what use are the finger-nails ? 

8. What keeps the hair moist and glossy? 

9. Why does the hair turn gray ? 

10. Of what use is the hair? 

11. On what does the complexion depend ? 

12. 'What are the perspiratory glands ? 

13. What is sensible perspiration ? Insensible perspiration ? 

14. How much perspiration is given out daily ? 

15. How is the skin kept from becoming hard and dry ? 

16. When we are in a perspiration why should we avoid sit- 
ting in draughts and drinking iced water? 

17. Why is bathing a necessity? 

18. W T ho are " The Three Greatest Physicians " ? 

19. What effect should be produced by a cold bath ? 

20. Why should not warm baths be taken as frequently as 
cold baths? 

21. When is the best time for bathing? 

22. When is it dangerous to take a cold bath ? 

23. Describe the condition of plants, fish, and children that 
are deprived of sunlight. 

24. How may we avoid sore throats and lung troubles ? 

25. What occasionally should be done with woolen clothing, 
beds, and pillows ? 

26. In the care of the sick upon what does much depend ? 



52 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

27. What can you say of damp bedding? 

28. What are often the best medicines? 

29. What effect has tobacco upon the skin ? 

30. What effect has alcohol upon the skin ? 




Fig. 16. — How Apples are Gathered. 



CHAPTER IV 



CIDER AND ALCOHOL 



i. Apples. — It has been said that if a man will keep 
a barrel of apples uncovered in his cellar the year 
around, and allow his children to go to them whenever 
they wish to do so, his doctor's bills will be very 
small. We have never seen a similar statement in 

53 



54 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

regard to his keeping a barrel of cider for the use of 
his children. There is a reason for this ; and as we 
are reasonable beings (beings able to reason), we 
can understand it. 

2. During different months of the year different 
fruits are in season. In the early spring months we 
have strawberries, a little later we have blackber- 
ries, and still later, cherries. In the summer months 
we have the early apples and peaches ; and later we 
have pears, plums, and grapes. From the time the 
early apples are ripe the different kinds are con- 
stantly ripening until late in the fall. Those that 
ripen early are not suited to cold weather, and they 
are not kept in the winter ; while the more hardy 
apples, such as greenings and russets, can be kept 
throughout the entire winter and spring if they are 
well packed. 

3. The body requires a great deal of water, as 
you will learn in another chapter. As fruits contain 
much water they are specially good for us as an 
article of diet. When apples are not made into 
cider they are nourishing to the whole body. 

4. Ferments. — When you look about you in the 
room in which you are sitting, you may not see any 
tiny specks of dust floating about ; but if you will 
draw down the shades, or close the shutters, darken- 



CIDER AXD ALCOHOL 55 

ing the room as much as possible, and then allow a 
single ray of sunlight to enter, von will see many of 
these tiny specks in the sunlight. 

5. There are constantly floating in the air tiny 
plants, too small to be seen without a microscope. 
Some of these tiny plants are called ferments. They 
are the same kind that live on some parts of the juice 
of fruits. As long as apples are protected by their 
skins through which the ferments cannot go, no 
harm can come to them by these plants. But when 
the apples are sent to a cider-mill and the juice is 
pressed out, the ferments lose no time in finding 
their way into the liquid. 

6. If we could keep the juice free from these little 
plants we might, perhaps, drink it without being 
poisoned ; but that has never been done. " Poi- 
soned?" " Does cider poison people ? " " Why do 
people drink it, then?" 

7. There are many kinds of poison. There are 
some kinds that kill people quickly, and some that 
take a long while in which to do so. And then, 
again, some kinds of poison taken in large doses will 
destroy life immediately, while the same kinds taken 
in small doses will be much longer in showing their 
ill-effects. Cider contains a poison which is like 
the last mentioned. 



56 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

8. Effect of Ferments.— The ferments have a very 
peculiar effect upon the sugar in the apple-juice. 
They cause the formation of a gas called carbonic-acid 
gas, and a poisonous liquid called alcohol. 

9. Alcohol is a colorless liquid that has a burning 
taste. If taken clear it would burn the mouth and 
throat badly, and, very likely, would take the skin 
off. Whiskey is said to be " raw " when it has much 
of this burning taste, and " smooth " when it is com- 
paratively free from it. 

10. Almost immediately after cider is made, alco- 
hol begins to form in it. Cider that has been made 
a long time, or " hard " cider, as it is called, is about 
one tenth alcohol. The sweetness has almost en- 
tirely gone from. it. If it is allowed to remain 
untouched for a sufficient length of time, it will 
lose its sweetness entirely and become vinegar. 
But before this occurs, another change must take 
place in the apple-juice. This second change 
is caused by the action of the natural acid in 
the juice. This acid destroys the alcohol in the 
liquid. 

11. Water and Alcohol. — You will remember that 
we have said that the body needs a great deal of 
water. Perhaps you think that as alcohol is a liquid 
it may be good for the body, but it is not ; on the 






CIDER AXD ALCOHOL $7 

contrary, it is exceedingly injurious, and in more 
ways than one. 

12. Water is good for us because it adds to the 
strength of the bones and muscles; it helps dissolve 
or soften the food in the stomach, and it replaces a 
part of the fluid given off in the form of perspira- 
tion. Alcohol weakens the bones and muscles, 
toughens the food in the stomach, and dries up, by 
its own heat or power of destroying, the water in 
the body. 

13. You can understand now why alcohol is inju- 
rious. As it dries up the water in the body, people 
who have drunk a large quantity of alcohol are 
always thirsty. Sometimes they say, " I cannot 
understand why I am so thirsty when 1 have drunk 
so much cider." 

14. One of the most serious dangers in connection 
with the use of cider or of any liquor containing 
alcohol is the increasing appetite for it. People 
take it at first thinking it will taste good and 
quench their thirst. Sometimes as their thirst 
increases they drink more and more cider, or what- 
ever liquor they have been drinking, thinking if 
they can drink a sufficient quantity it will surely 
quench their thirst. 

15. A Dangerous Habit. — This is always dangerous, 



58 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

because when a large quantity has been taken into 
the system the brain loses its power to think, the ears 
to hear, the eyes to see, the legs to support the body, 
and the unfortunate drinker falls to the ground in a 
pitiful condition. There he must lie until he wakes 
and can go home, or until some friends who are 
sorry for him carry him there. 

1 6. Aside from producing thirst, alcohol has a 
very singular effect upon some people. In time 
many persons as brave and true as we could wish to 
see, and who know all about the ill-effects of alcohol, 
become so much in the habit of drinking it that they 
cannot break themselves of it. 

17. Although we may be made very unhappy 
on account of their misfortune, we have no right to 
judge them harshly. While we are not responsible 
for it unless we have tempted them to drink, we 
can do much for their happiness ; and we can resolve 
that no one shall suffer through us on account of 
our having formed such a habit. If we never take 
the first mug or glass of cider, or of any liquor 
containing alcohol, we shall be safe, and only then. 

18. Cider is specially injurious to the liver. 
Whatever injures the liver hurts the digestion, and 
whatever hurts the digestion makes people irritable. 
We must acknowledge then, and facts prove it, 



CI PER AND ALCOHOL 59 

that cider, even in small quantities, makes people 
cross. 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER IV 

i. How has it been said that a man can, in one way, keep 
his doctor's bills very small ? 

2. Has a similar statement been made in regard to cider? 

3. What kind of apples can be kept for months? 

4. Why are fruits good for us? 

5. When are apples not nourishing? 

6. When can we see the dust that is ordinarily in the air in 
any room ? 

7. What are some of the tiny plants that are found in the 
air? 

8. Upon what do they live? 

9. How are apples protected against them ? 

10. When can the ferments harm them? 

1 1. When could we drink cider without being poisoned ? 

12. Describe different kinds of poison. 

13. To which class or kind belongs cider? 

14. What two poisons do ferments produce in cider? 

15. How could our lives be destroyed by carbonic-acid gas? 

16. Describe alcohol. 

17. How would it affect the mouth and throat if taken clear? 

18. How soon does alcohol begin to form in rider? 

19. What proportion of " hard " cider is alcohol ? 

20. How is vinegar made of cider.'' 

21. What liquid does the body need? 

22. Why is water good for us? 

23. Why is alcohol bad for us? 

24. Does alcohol quench thirst? Why not? 

25. What is a serious danger in the use of cider? 

26. Why do people take it at first? 



60 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

27. What is the effect when a large quantity of alcohol in any 
form is taken into the system ? 

28. What very singular effect has alcohol upon people? 

29. When are we responsible for this bad habit in people? 

30. When are we safe from such a habit ? 

31. To what part of the body is cider specially injurious? 

32. Why should quantities of cider make people cross ? 







Fig. 17. — Different Kinds of Grain. 



CHAPTER V 



BEER AND WINE 



i. Rye, Corn, and Wheat. — Many of the grains, 

such as rye, corn, and wheat, are very necessary 

articles of food. They contain starch, which in the 

process of ripening or of cooking becomes changed 

into sugar. Barley is very much like wheat, but is 

used more for cattle and other live-stock than for 

61 



62 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

the table. Although grains are so very nourishing 
when properly prepared for food, they are often 
sadly misused. 

2. Alcohol Produced from Sugar. — Anything which 
contains sugar can be made to yield alcohol when 
its juice is pressed out, or when it is moistened and 
kept warm. The sweetness in grains is used in mak- 
ing beer. As the nourishment and sweetness are 
destroyed in apples when they are made into cider, 
so the nourishment and sweetness of grains are 
destroyed when they are made into beer. 

3. Sprouting. — Have you ever put beans, peas, 
corn, oats, and other seeds on cotton-wool and kept 
them covered with water until they have sprouted ? 
Sometimes very pretty and delicate plants can be 
raised in this way. The dish in which the cotton- 
wool and the seeds are kept thoroughly moist should 
stand in a warm place. 

4. As the seeds swell on account of the warmth 
and the moisture, the starch in them changes to 
sugar. That is why they can sprout. If the water 
is not changed often it will soon, on account of the 
heat produced by the sprouting of the seeds, have a 
very disagreeable odor. Alcohol forms in the water 
wh^le the seeds are sprouting. 

5 Malt. — When barley or wheat is to be made 



BEER AND WINE 63 

into beer it is moistened and kept warm. The 
moistened grain is called malt. After the grain has 
begun to sprout it is dried and put away until the 
time comes when it is to be made into ale, beer, or 
porter. 

6. Yeast. — When malt is to be made into beer it 
is moistened a second time, and yeast is put into the 
mixture to hasten the formation of alcohol. Yeast 
is a plant similar to ferments and produces the same 
effect when it is put into any liquid or juice. The 
action produced in liquids by ferments or yeast is 
called fermentation. 

7. Yeast helps Fermentation. — As alcohol is 
formed by the heat produced in the sprouting of 
the grain, and yeast increases the amount of heat, it 
follows that more alcohol is produced in a given 
quantity of liquid when yeast is used. 

8. Formerly one bushel of grain by natural fer- 
mentation yielded alcohol sufficient to make one 
and one half gallons of whiskey. Now, by increas- 
ing the heat in the mixture by using yeast, two or 
three times the amount of whiskey can be made. 
As a result the mixture is even more harmful. 

9. Ale and Beer. — When the yeast is added to 
the malt, hops and other things are added to give it 
flavor. Ale is formed by a more rapid fermenta- 



64 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

tion than beer and contains, consequently, more 
alcohol. A given amount of beer does not contain 
as much alcohol as the same amount of cider does. 
Home-made beer contains alcohol, as you will know 
if you stop to think about it. Whether it is made 
of roots and herbs or of prepared extracts, it is a 
fermented liquor because yeast is put with it. 

10. Cider is said to make people cross ; but beer, 
partly on account of the hops which are used in 
making it, tends to make people drowsy or stupid. 

ii. Hops. — Sometimes, when people cannot sleep, 
they are advised to heat a pillow made of hops and 
put it under their heads so they can have the benefit 
of its warmth and its soothing properties. It is 
soothing to the nerves. You can see now why 
beer taken in large quantities makes people drowsy. 
It does this partly on account of the hops and partly 
because of the stupefying effect of the alcohol con- 
tained in it. As we do not need beer, and as we 
know that it is injurious, we can avoid forming the 
habit of beer-drinking. 

12. Yeast -bread. — If we should mix flour and 
water and a little salt and bake the mixture, it 
would not taste very good to us. The bread that 
is best liked is yeast-bread. When yeast, which you 
will remember is similar to ferments, is put with the 



BEER AND WINE 65 

flour and water, it. changes the sweetness in the 
Hour to carbonic-acid gas and to alcohol. 

13. The gas causes the bread to rise. The gas 
and the alcohol pass off in the oven as the bread is 
baked, and we are not harmed by them. If the 
bread is eaten while it is still warm we are in dan- 
ger of taking some of the alcohol into the stomach. 
If the dough is not well taken care of, baked at just 
the right time, and baked suitably, it is likely to be 
heavv and very hard to digest. If allowed to stand 
too long before baking it will become sour, as the 
yeast will destroy all of the sugar in the dough. 

14. Wine. — Wine is made principally of the juice 
of grapes, but it may be made of almost any fruit 
juice. It is made very much as cider is made. The 
grapes are taken to the wine-press, the juice pressed 
out, and then, although we cannot see them, the fer- 
ments settle themselves in the liquid and begin their 
peculiar work. They produce the same effect as in 
cider. They change the sugar in the juice to car- 
bonic-acid gas and to alcohol. 

A YOUNG PERSIAN PRINCE. AN OLD STORY. 

The ancient Persians brought up their children in 
a very plain and hardy way. 



66 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

Until they were twenty -severe years old the boys 
and young men of Persia were fed on bread, cresses, 
and water. They were obliged to do a great deal 
of hard work, to make long journeys, and they slept 
on hard beds. This plain and temperate life made 
them strong, active, brave, and healthy. 

Cyrus, a young Persian prince, was brought up in 
this way. When he was twelve years of age his 
mother took him to visit her father, who was at that 
time king of Media. But in Media boys and young 
men were brought up in a very different way from 
that in which Cyrus had been brought up. 

In that country the nobles and their sons dressed 
in scarlet and gold ; they ate rich food and they 
drank strong wine. Cyrus, who was a bright lad, 
pleased his grandfather greatly by his simple, kindly 
manner, his sprightly wit, and by his constant will- 
ingness to help and oblige every one who came in 
his way. 

One day Cyrus asked his grandfather if he would 
allow him to be his cup-bearer for a day or two. 
His grandfather was very glad to hear this request, 
and was very glad to grant it. 

It was the rule for the cup-bearer of the Median 
king, before handing wine to his master, to pour 
some of the wine into his left hand and taste it. This 



BEER A. YD WINE 67 

was the custom at the court, to prove to the king 
thai the wine was safe to drink, and that no enemy 
had put poison in it. 

But when Cyrus handed the wine-cup to his 
grandfather, he did not taste it. " Cyrus," said his 
grandfather, " you have forgotten something." 

" I am not aware of it," replied Cyrus. 

44 You did not taste the wine before handing it to 
me." 

44 I did not forget it, grandfather." 

,% Not forget it ! What do you mean ? " 

" I did not intend to taste it." 

"Why not, Cyrus?" 

" Because I feared there was poison in the wine." 

" Poison, child ! Why did you not tell me ? 1 
would not then have drunk it." 

" Yes, poison ; for not long ago I was at the ban- 
quet that you gave to the lords of your court. I 
noticed, when they had drunk some of your wine, 
that they began to talk nonsense or to sing, and that 
some of them, indeed, could not talk at all. You, 
too, seemed to have forgotten that you were king. 
Then when your lords and nobles rose up and 
wanted to dance, some of them could not even stand 
straight upon their legs." 

44 You are an odd child," replied his grandfather. 



68 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

" Have you never seen the same thing happen to 

your father ? " 

" No, never," replied Cyrus. 

" What happens, then, when he drinks? " 

" Why, he drinks water, and when he has drunk, 

his thirst is quenched ; and that is all." 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER V 

1. What are rye, corn, wheat ? 

2. Into what is the starch in them changed ? How ? 

3. How is bailey sometimes used ? 

4. What can be made to yield alcohol? 

5. Into what are grains made ? 

6. What becomes of their nourishment and sweetness? 

7. How can some pretty and delicate plants be raised ? 

8. What forms while the seeds are sprouting ? 

9. What is malt ? Into what liquors is it made? 

10. When malt is to be made into beer what is put into the 
liquid? Why? 

11. What is yeast? What is fermentation ? 

12. How does yeast affect the amount of alcohol in a liquid ? 

13. Does that make the beer more or less harmful ? 

14. What else is added to the malt in beer-making? 

15. Does ale contain more or less alcohol than beer? 

16. Of beer and cider, in equal quantities, which contains the 
more alcohol ? 

17. Does Home-made beer contain alcohol? 

18. W r hat effect upon people has beer? 

19. To what good use can hops be put ? 

20. Why does beer make people drowsy ? 

21. How can we avoid its ill-effects ? 

22. What kind of bread is best liked? 



BEER AND WINE 69 

23. What effect has yeast upon the dough of which bread is 
made ? 

24. What effect has the gas upon the dough ? 

25. Why is not the alcohol injurious to us ? 

26. When is yeast-bread injurious ? 

27. What causes dough to become sour? 

28. Of what is wine made? 

29. What effect have ferments upon grape-juice? 

30. Why was not Cyrus's father poisoned by wine .^ 



CHAPTER VI 

DISTILLATION AND ADULTERATION 

i. Effects of Alcohol. — You have been told that 
cider, ale, beer, porter, and wine contain alcohol. 
You have learned, also, what is meant by alcohol : 
that it is a poisonous fluid produced by the fermen- 
tation of fruit-juices or of grains. It is injurious to 
the bones, muscles, and skin, and in succeeding - chap- 
ters you will learn its effects upon other parts of the 
body. It sometimes robs a person of all power of 
thought, hearing, sight, and motion, causing him 
to fall into an intoxicated sleep which cannot refresh 
him, but which, for the time, keeps him from doing 
any further wrong. It is only when large quantities 
of the liquor have been taken that this heavy sleep 
occurs. 

2. The Alcohol Habit. — Alcohol has a peculiar 
effect upon people in another way. If a liking for 
the taste of it is formed, no one can tell to what it 
may lead ; and alcohol is irresistible to some people 
after this liking is formed. They drink it when 



DISTILLATION AND ADULTERATION 71 

they know better, when they know it will make 
them sick and make very unhappy those whom 
they clearlv love. They do not wish to yield to its 
coaxing, hut they cannot break themselves of the 
habit of drinking it. 

3. Distillation. — Some alcoholic liquors are even 
more injurious in their effects than those we 
have already mentioned. Gin, rum, whiskey, and 
brandy are some of them. They are made of alco- 
hol which has been separated from the fermented 
liquors about which yon have already studied. The 
process by which this separation is made is called 
distillation. 

4. Steam. — When water boils in the tea-kettle the 
vapor or steam as it comes from the nose of the tea- 
kettle is not seen until it becomes condensed into 
tiny drops which we call steam. It really ceases to 
be steam when it becomes drops. As soon as the 
steam escapes from the tea-kettle the cold air about 
it obliges the particles to come closely together, for 
warmth we might almost say, and when sufficient 
particles have united they become drops of water. 

5. Distilled Water.— Water that has been changed 
into steam and then, by being made to pass through 
a tube or pipe into a jar or other vessel and allowed 
to condense or to form drops of water, is distilled 



*]2 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

water, and it is perfectly pure. If sea-water should 
be distilled, the salt and other minerals would re- 
main in the kettle, while the steam that escaped 
would form pure or distilled water. 

6. How Alcohol is Distilled.— When alcohol is to 
be distilled, the liquor containing it is heated! As 
alcohol boils more quickly than the other part of 
the liquid in which it is contained, it is the alcohol 
that first passes off in the form of steam. This 
steam when condensed forms alcohol. 

7. Different Kinds of Liquors.— Alcohol distilled 
from sugar-cane or molasses is made into rum ; that 
distilled from grapes is made into brandy ; and that 
distilled from grains is made into gin or whiskey. 
Or, countries that raise sugar-cane make rum ; 
countries that raise grapes make brandy ; and 
wheat-growing countries make whiskey. From one 
third to one half of each of these liquors is alcohol. 

8. Adulteration. — All liquors are liable to be 
impure; that is, an absolutely pure wine, whiskey, 
brandy, or gin is rarely found. These impure 
liquors are said to be adulterated. When liquors 
are pure they are injurious, but when they are 
adulterated the danger in their use is largely 
increased. 

9. BRANDY. — Genuine brandy is distilled from 



DISTILLATION AND ADULTERATION 73 

grape-wine. When first made it is colorless, and it 
would remain so if it were bottled. As soon as it is 
made it is put into oaken casks. The color of the 
wood is absorbed by the brandy, and in time it be- 
comes of the color of tea, growing darker as it 
grows older. Consequently the age of pure brandy 
is known bv its color. There are not enough grapes 
made into brandy to supply the amount of what is 
used under that name. As a result, an impure 
article is made and sold. 

10. Impure brandy is often colored by burnt 
sugar, and by other substances not as harmless. 
Some of these substances used in coloring give the 
brandy such a peculiar taste that other peculiar 
substances or liquids are used to conceal it, and the 
liquor finally produced is very far removed from 
genuine brandy. All very dark brandy is artifi- 
cially colored. 

ii. Wine. — Wine is made principally from grapes, 
but it can be made from almost any fruit. Wines 
are more expensive than other liquors, but they are 
also, in many cases, less injurious, because they con- 
tain less alcohol. Some wines grow darker with 
age, and some grow lighter. Wines are made in 
many European countries and also in the United 
States. Since California has become such a grape- 



74 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

growing state it has made large quantities of wine. 
" California wines" are advertised by almost every 
liquor saloon or store ; but it is stated that Cali- 
fornia can scarcely supply the demand made for its 
wane by two western cities. How, then, can so 
many stores sell California wines ? 

12. If the above statement is true, the California 
wines which they sell must be largely adulterated. 
For the same reason that enough brandy cannot be 
made to supply the demand, enough wine cannot be 
made : not enough fruit is used in its manufacture. 
It very easy to make impure wines ; and they are 
made and sold in immense quantities. During one 
month the city authorities of Paris made an exami- 
nation of 1 518 samples of French wines. They 
found less than sixty-five samples free from adultera- 
tion. 

13. Whiskey. — Whiskey is a more common drink 
than brandy or wine among those who use alcoholic 
liquors. It is less expensive than brandy or wine, 
and it contains more alcohol than many of the 
cheaper liquors: two reasons why it is used by 
those who cannot overcome the power which alco- 
hol has over them. Its adulterations or impurities 
are many and various, from those comparatively 
harmless to those even more injurious than the 






DIS TIL LA TIOX A XI) A D UL TERA TION 7 5 

materials usually employed. Whiskey is made, 
then, of many qualities — from that which is pure to 
that which has no right to the name of whiskey. It 
is but a step from the use of the poorest quality of 
whiskey to alcohol itself; and when that step is 
taken, one rarely overcomes the power of that 
Liquor. His body cannot long- resist its poison, and 
he lives only to regret haying formed the habit of 
drink. 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER VI 

i. What is alcohol ? Mention five liquors that contain it. 

2. What happens when large quantities of liquor are taken ? 

3. What can you say of the alcohol habit? 

4. What liquors are more injurious than those mentioned 
in paragraph 1 ? Why ? 

5. What is distillation ? 

6. What change must occur to steam on cooling? 

7. What causes the steam to condense? 

8. What is distilled water? Can pure water be made of 
sea-water ? 

9. How is alcohol distilled? 

10. What kind of alcohol is used in making rum ? Brandy? 
Gin? Whiskey? 

1 1. How much of each of these liquors is alcohol ? 

12. Are pure liquors often found ? 

13. What are impure liquors called? 

14. Are adulterated liquors more or less harmful than pure 
liquors? 

15. What is the color of brandy when first made? 

16. What causes it to change ? 



76 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

ij. Why is impure brandy made ? 

1 8. Of what is much imported French brandy made? 

19. How is impure brandy colored ? 

20. What can be said of all very dark brandy? 

21. From what is wine made? 

22. How does wine compare with other liquors in regard to 
expense and alcohol ? 

23. Why can California make so much wine? 

24. Is it possible for California to supply the demand for its 
wine ? 

25. What is sold in place of it ? 

26. What proof have we that the French wines are not 
always pure ? 

27. Why is whiskey so commonly used ? 

28. What can you say of the adulterations of whiskey ? 

29. What may follow the use of the poorest quality of whis- 
key ? What is the result ? 



CHAPTER VII 

TOBACCO AND NARCOTICS 

i. Nicotine. — The custom of smoking is so com- 
mon that you may ask, " Is there really any danger 
in using- tobacco? We know that you have said it 
is bad for the bones, muscles, and skin, but where is 
the real danger in it? A good many things are bad 
for us to do, but who ever died on account of using 
tobacco?" We do not wonder that you ask these 
questions. You are young ; you may never have 
seen any of its ill-effects; and, since you were born, 
many truths regarding the harm done by the use of 
tobacco have been made known. Tobacco contains 
a poison called nicotine which is able to destroy life. 
It sometimes causes diseases from which it is im- 
possible to recover. A drop of nicotine put on the 
tongue of a small animal would kill it within one or 
two minutes. 

2. Where Tobacco is Raised. — Tobacco is raised 
in almost ever)- part of the United States, from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Canada to the Gulf 

77 



78 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

of Mexico. It is raised also in other countries, but 
not so extensively as here. It grows to a height of 
six or eight feet and has large, broad, and light 
green leaves. The tobacco raised in the different 
States has marked peculiarities ; so much so, that 
good judges of tobacco can tell, very often, in which 
State it was raised. From 600 to 1000 pounds can 
be raised on an acre. 

3. Connecticut and Virginia. — Connecticut raises 
tobacco that has a large, thin leaf which is remark- 
ably fine and silky. Its flavor is not considered as 
fine as that of the tobacco raised in other States, but 
it is much used for wrappers, or outer coverings of 
cigars. It is sent to Cuba for this purpose. To- 
bacco was raised in Virginia by the earliest settlers 
there; but in 1616 a law was passed warning the 
people not to neglect the food-crops for tobacco. 

4. How Tobacco is Prepared for the Market. — 
Tobacco is variously prepared to please the taste of 
those who use it. Molasses, licorice, figs, glycerine, 
salt, soda, and anise are often used in order that the 
taste, color, moisture, and aroma may be improved. 
These additions, except those for aroma, are made 
into a ''sauce" in which the leaves are steeped. 
Snuff is perfumed with orris-root and rose. Fortu- 
nately snuff-taking is going out of fashion in the 



TOBACCO A. YD XARCOTICS 79 

United States, and we may be very hopeful that 
tobacco-chewing and smoking will meet with the 
same fate at no very distant day. Tobacco was hrst 
used in the form of snuff, and it met with serious 
opposition on the part of physicians and many other 
people who knew of its dangers. In Russia, at one 
time, the penalty for taking snuff was to have the 
nose cut off. 

5. Effects of Tobacco. — Tobacco, particularly 
when first used, produces dizziness, faintness, and 
nausea. If the nausea continues, the pulse becomes 
weaker, fainting occurs, and sometimes convulsions 
are caused. When portions of the hand, or arm, or 
of any part of the body from which the skin has 
been removed, by a bruise or otherwise, have been 
touched by powdered tobacco, or tobacco-juice, 
severe cases of poisoning have resulted, and some- 
times loss of life. 

6. Never use Tobacco. — Young people, or those 
whose full growth has not been reached, should 
never use tobacco, as it is especially injurious to 
their proper development. It is injurious both to 
the body and the mind. As a cigar is smoked the 
nicotine accumulates in the stub, or the end held 
between the teeth. That is one reason why some 
men throw away their cigars half smoked. They 



80 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

do not like them after they become so strong. 
Those who smoke pipes are more liable to smoke 
tobacco that has been adulterated or made of poor 
materials. 

7. Tobacco-chewing.— Perhaps it will be sufficient 
to say on this subject that we never could under- 
stand why some people who chew tobacco become 
so careless of the condition of their mouths, beards, 
clothes, and of the rights of others. Because those 
who chew tobacco cannot swallow the juice, that is 
no reason why other people should be obliged to 
see it on the sidewalks, floors of cars and boats, walk 
over it, or inhale it. It is embarrassing to speak so 
plainly on this subject, but it would be unnecessary 
to do so if some of those who chew tobacco would 
be more thoughtful. 

8. Cigarettes. — Cigarettes are more harmful than 
any other form in which tobacco is used. It has 
been proved again and again that very injurious 
substances are put into them. Cigarettes are the 
worst things that are sold under the name of to- 
bacco. 

9. Narcotics. — Whatever stupefies or dulls the 
senses and sensibilities, producing an artificial sleep, 
is a narcotic. Narcotics are dangerous under any 
circumstances and should be used only by physi- 



TOBACCO AND NARCOTICS 



81 



cians who understand the danger in them and know 
how to counteract it. Opium, morphine, laudanum, 
tobacco, and alcohol are narcotics. 

10. Opium. — Opium is made from the juice of the 
white poppy. The poppy was originally a native of 
Asia, but it is now raised in many parts of Europe, 
and in a few of our own 
States, California being 
one. The most of the 
opium used in this country 
is brought here from Asia. 
India, Turkey, and Persia 
export more than other 
countries. Laudanum is a 
liquid form of opium made 
with alcohol. Morphine 
is another form of opium. 
The effect of opium is felt 
within a very few moments 
after it has entered the 
system. Physicians sometimes inject very small 
doses of it into the veins of people who are 
suffering terrible pain, and relief is felt almost 
immediately. The quickness of the relief is a proof 
of the danger in the drug. If it should ever be 
taken by mistake, or by one who does not under- 




8. — Poppy Plant. 



82 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

stand the danger in it, do not let the one who has 
taken it go to sleep. Keep him running, walking, 
or moving as long as possible. Give him mustard 
and water to drink, for that will help him to empty 
his stomach of the poison. 

ii. Quieting Medicines. — Opium is found in the 
so-called " soothing" or "quieting" medicines. 
Sometimes babies are kept quiet by them while 
their mothers or nurses work, read, or do some- 
thing else than give the babies the care they need. 
Never use anything of the kind. If the little ones 
do not actually lose their lives by its use, they are 
more than likely to be seriously injured by it. 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER VII 

i. What three parts of the body are injured by tobacco? 

2. What poison is contained in tobacco ? 

3. Why do we know it is a poison ? 

4. What will one drop of nicotine do to a small animal ? 

5. Where is tobacco raised ? 

6. Do all the States raise the same kind of tobacco ? 

7. How many pounds can be raised on an acre ? 

8. Describe the tobacco raised by Connecticut. 

9. What law relating to tobacco was passed in 1616 ? 

10. Why are molasses, glycerine, salt, anise, and other things 
used with tobacco? In what form was tobacco first used ? 

n. What effect upon the body has tobacco ? 

12. What effect has powdered tobacco upon parts of the 
body that have lost the skin ? 



TOBA CCO A ND NA R CO TICS 8 3 

13. Who in particular should never use tobacco ? Why ? 

14. Why does a cigar grow stronger as it is smoked ? 

15. Why, in one way, is pipe-smoking more liable to be in- 
jurious than cigar-smoking ? 

16. Is tobacco-chewing a neat habit ? 

17. What can be said against the use of cigarettes ? 

18. What is a narcotic ? 

19. Name five narcotics. 

20. From what countries in Asia is opium imported ? 

21. Of what are morphine and laudanum different forms ? 

22. How soon is the effect of opium felt ? 

23. How do physicians sometimes use it? 

24. What should be done for any one who has taken it by 
mistake ? 

25. Why are " soothing " or " quieting " medicines so injuri- 
ous to children ? 

26. What effect have they upon babies? 




Fig. 19. — Harvesting Corn. 



CHAPTER VIII 



FOOD AND DRINK 



i. Why We Need Food. — A watch, when well taken 
care of and wound at regular intervals, is a valuable 
possession. A sewing-machine, when kept clean 
and well oiled, saves a great deal of time and 
strength. A fire, when properly fed with wood or 
coal, will keep us warm and supply the necessary 
heat for cooking the food which we need. 

2. Whenever we move, or breathe, or think, we 
use up some of our strength, we begin to wear out, 

34 



FOOD A. YD DRINK 85 

and we lose sonic of our heat. We have begun to 
rim down like a watch, to wear out like a machine, 
and to grow cold as a stove does when the fire is 
going out. The right kinds of food, when properly 
prepared and taken at regular hours, will make up 
for the loss of strength, for the wear of the body, 
and for its loss of heat. 

3. The Choice of Food. — Our bodies are given to 
us for many purposes, useful, beautiful, and won- 
derful. Thev deserve the best of care, not alone 
for our own health and happiness, but for the health 
and happiness of those about us. We have heard 
people say, " I am ashamed to be sick, because I feel 
that I am to blame for it." In many instances we 
are the ones to be blamed when we are taken ill. 
The subject of food is an important one in connec- 
tion with health ; and as it is almost wholly within 
our power to decide what we will eat and drink, we 
may thank ourselves for good health, or reproach 
ourselves for poor health, in so far as a wise or a 
poor choice of food is concerned. 

4. Quantity of Food. — The quantity of food needed 
depends upon many things. Children need more 
food than grown people. Those who spend much 
time in the open air need more food than those who 
spend the most of their time within doors. Those 



86 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

who work hard with their bodies need more food 
than those who can sit while they work, or who 
study a great deal ; and those who live in cold 
countries need more food than those who live in 
warm countries. During cold weather more food 
is needed than during warm weather. Children 
need food to supply the material for new growth, as 
well as for health, strength, and warmth. The dif- 
ferent parts of the body get from the food which we 
eat and from the air which we breathe whatever 
they need to keep them well and strong. 

5. What is Food? — Food is that which nourishes 
the body ; that is, food is material, in solid or liquid 
form, which can be changed by digestion into parts 
exactly like the body. After this change has been 
made, the nourishment obtained from the food is 
carried to every part of the body. These are very 
wonderful things, and you will learn all about them 
in the next two chapters. Our food consists chiefly 
of water, salt, vegetables, grains, and meat. The 
first four are obtained directly from the earth. As 
meat is the flesh of animals, and animals feed upon 
vegetables, grains, and grasses, we can truly say 
that our food is obtained entirely from the earth. 
Hay and husks of corn are changed by cattle into 



FOOD AND DRINK 87 

milk and meat ; and corn and meal are changed by 
poultry into eggs and meat. 

6. The Care of Animals. — Every one knows that 
cattle and sheep should be well taken care of if we 
would have their flesh of good quality and flavor, if 
we would have the cows give good milk and the 
sheep give us fine wool. But are we careful enough 
of the animals that give us pork in all its varieties? 
All animals are nourished by what they eat, and we 
are nourished partly by their flesh. Some families 
seem to think that anything is good enough for the 
pig, and that a pig is bound to be dirty on account 
of its habit of wallowing in the mud in its pen. 

7. Organic and Inorganic Substances. — Substances 
or materials which we use as food are divided into 
two classes, organic and inorganic substances. Or- 
ganic substances are obtained from vegetables and 
animals. Inorganic substances belong to the min- 
eral kingdom. Water and salt belong to this class. 

8. Water. — Water is the most necessary of all 
food-substances. Without water or any food a 
strong man can live at the utmost one week. With 
water alone he can live three weeks or even longer. 

9. Pure Water. — It is very important to have 
our drinking-water pure. If it is not, the dirt and 
impure matter that it contains will injure us. Rain- 



o5 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

water is the purest water in nature; but even that, 
in falling through the air, catches the particles of 
dust that are constantly carried up from the ground. 

10. Well-water. — Well-water that is sparkling is 
often the most impure water we have, although it is 
generally thought to be the best. It takes up from 
the ground gases made from decaying vegetable or 
animal matter, and these gases give it the beautiful 
sparkle. Spring-water is much better than well- 
water, as the well is frequently in the neighborhood 
of an out-house drain or barn whose impurities soak 
into the ground and pollute the water. If there is 
any doubt about the purity of drinking-water, it is 
best to boil it. In that way the impurities become 
harmless. Distilled water which is perfectly pure 
can be had in large cities. Good filters will take 
impurities from the water, and make even muddy 
water quite clear. 

ii. Cisterns and wells should be cleaned once or 
twice a year. It is almost impossible to keep impu- 
rities out of them, and the health depends largely 
upon pure water. The sides of cisterns and the 
stones in wells are covered with slime sometimes 
when the water is low in them, and if left there it 
will soon make the water impure. Pure water 



FOOD AND DRINK 89 

should be clear and colorless, with little or no taste 
and no smell. 

12. Water in Pipes. — Water that is brought into 
houses through pipes should be allowed to run for a 
few moments every morning before using any of it. 
The impurities that have settled in the pipes during 
the night should be washed out by the running 
water before any of it is used for drinking or in 
preparing the breakfast. It is not well to use the 
hot water in the boiler for cooking purposes. 

13. Common Salt. — Salt, as an article of food, is 
obtained chiefly from the mineral kingdom ; although 
plants contain it in small quantities, and it is also 
found in the flesh of nearly all animals used as food. 
Even the water we drink sometimes contains salt. 
In the human body it is found in all the solids and 
fluids. The importance of salt is shown bv the 
value placed upon it in countries where it is rare. 
On the gold coast of Africa a handful of it will buy 
one or two slaves; next to gold it is their most 
valuable possession. Its necessity to animal life is 
seen in the great appetite for it among domestic 
animals, and because herds of wild beasts go regu- 
larly to the " salt-licks " or springs. 

14. Experiments upon domestic animals show that 
if thev cannot have salt with their food their hides 



90 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 



grow rough, the hair falls out, and they cannot 
properly digest their food. They would die of star- 
vation if they could not have salt. 

15. Organic Substances. — The organic food-sub- 
stances are obtained from the vegetable and animal 
kingdoms. They include all of those articles which 
are commonly spoken of as "food." They are 
divided into three groups: (1) the Albuminoids, or 
the flesh-producers. Among these are albumen, or 



Mh\H0i^ 










Fig. 20. — An Esquimau Village. 

white of eggs ; a part of cheese ; gluten from wheat ; 
and the lean part of meat. 

16. (2) The Fats or Oils, or the great heat-producers. 
Among these are butter, lard, olive, and other vege- 



FOOD AND DRIXK 



91 



tabic oils. In cold climates the fat of animals is the 
chief article of food, but where vegetation is scanty 
and not very nourishing the people live upon fish or 
whales which can be caught in the waters near them. 
The Esquimau consumes daily from ten to fifteen 
pounds of meat or blubber, a large portion of which 
is fat. The Laplander will drink whale-oil, and 
regards tallow-candles as a great delicacy. In hot 
climates, on the other hand, a vegetable fat is sup- 
plied by the olive and the palm. 

17. (3) The Sugars, like the last group, are heat- 
producers. They are, with the exception of the sugar 
of milk and honey, ob- 
tained chiefly from 
sugar-cane, maple-trees 
and beets. The sweet- 
tasting fruits, such as 
grapes, pears, peaches, 
and cherries, are rich 
in grape-sugar. In 
this group starch is 
placed, for the reason 
that it must be changed 
into sugar by diges- 
tion before it can take part in building up the body. 

18. The grains, wheat, corn, and rye, which are 




-Granules of Starch 
Magnified. 



92 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

made into bread of different kinds are more than 
one half starch. Rice, which is the principal food 
of one third of the human family, contains more 
starch than any other grain. Unripe fruits have 
much starch in them, which makes them indigestible 
when eaten uncooked ; for raw starch is only slightly 
acted upon within the body. But under the sun's 
rays this raw material is changed into sugar. When 
apple-seeds are very dark, it is safe to eat the apple. 
The starch in it has been changed to sugar. 

19. Necessity of a Regulated Diet. — These three 
organic food-groups are each essential to' life. Not 
one of them can be used alone without danger to 
health and life. An animal can be starved to death 
on the white of egg, or on butter, or on pure sugar, 
which represent the three classes. But if these are 
given together, or are changed often, it will live and 
thrive. 

20. Milk. — Milk may be regarded as the model 
food, no other single article being capable of sus- 
taining life so long. Cow's milk contains one of the 
albuminoids, about five parts in one hundred ; a 
fatty substance known as butter, about four parts ; 
sugar of milk, four parts ; water and salts, eighty- 
seven parts. The albuminoid and fatty substances 
are far more digestible in milk than after they have 



FOOD AXD DRINK 93 

been separated from it in the form of cheese and 
butter. Cheese cooked in any way is exceedingly 
bad to digest. Good butter is a necessary article 
of food. Bad butter of every description should be 
avoided. 

21. The Egg. — The egg contains about two thirds 
water, the rest being pure albumen and fat. The 
fat is in the yolk, and gives it its yellow color. Eggs 
contain none of the sugars, and should be eaten with 
bread or vegetables that contain them. Soft-boiled 
eggs are more wholesome than those which are 
hard-boiled or fried, as the latter require a longer 
time to digest. 

22. Meats. — Meats are obtained from the flesh of 
various animals. They are most important articles 
of food for grown people, inasmuch as they" are 
richlv stored with albuminoid substances and con- 
tain more or less fat. Such food is very nourishing 
and easily digested if eaten when fresh, — veal and 
pork being exceptions. The flesh of young animals 
is more tender and, in general, more digestible than 
that of older ones. All meat is tough when first 
prepared for market, but improves by being kept a 
certain length of time. 

23. Cold is one means of preserving meat. In the 
markets of northern Russia the frozen carcasses of 



94 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

animals are exposed for sale in the winter air for a 
considerable time, and are sawed into pieces, like 
sticks of wood, as the purchases are made; such 
meat, when thawed, is entirely fit for food. Beef 
and pork are preserved by salting down in brine, 
and in this condition may be carried on long- voyages 
or kept for future use. 

24. Salted meat is not as nourishing as fresh meat, 
since the brine absorbs its rich juices and hardens 
its fibres. It makes the food eaten with it taste 
good because the salt acts as a "relish," as we say. 
Food of any kind is more nourishing when it tastes 
good and is delicately served. When food ap- 
peals to the eye it is generally more pleasing to the 
taste. 

25. Cooking. — The preparation of food by cooking 
is customary even among the rudest nations. The 
object of cooking is to render food more easy of 
digestion by softening it, to develop its flavor, and 
to raise its temperature more nearly to that of 
the body. A* few articles of flesh-food, such as 
oysters, are eaten uncooked in civilized lands. 

26. The water in which meat is boiled tends to 
dissolve its nourishing juices. In fact, the cooking 
may be so conducted as to rob the meat of all its 
nourishment, its tenderness, and even of its flavor. 



FOOD AiXD DKIXK 95 

The proper method, in order to preserve these 
qualities, is to place the meat in boiling water, 

which, after a few minutes, should be reduced in 
temperature. In this way the intense heat, at first, 
hardens the outside of the meat and prevents the 
escape of the delicate juices ; after that, moderate 
heat best softens it throughout. When soup is to 
be made, an opposite course should be pursued ; for 
then the object is to extract the juices. Meat, for 
such purpose, should be cut in small pieces and put 
into cold water, which should then be gradually 
raised to boiling heat. 

27. Roasting is probably the best method of cook- 
ing meat, especially large pieces, as by this process 
the meat is cooked in its own juices. Roasting 
should begin with intense heat, and be continued at 
a moderate temperature, in order to prevent the 
drying out of the juices, as by this process an outer 
coating or crust of albumen is formed. During this 
process the meat loses one fourth of its weight, but 
the loss is almost wholly water, evaporated by the 
heat. Too intense or prolonged heat will dry the 
meat or burn it. 

28. Ham, sausages, and other forms of pork 
should never be eaten raw or imperfectly cooked ; 
as they might, in that condition, cause a painful and 



9 6 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 



serious illness. When they are thoroughly cooked 
there is nothing to fear! 

29. Fish. — The part of fish that is eaten is the 
muscle. It closely resembles meat, but is more 
watery. Some varieties are very easy of digestion, 
such as salmon, trout, and cod ; many others are 
quite indigestible, especially lobsters, clams, and 
other kinds of shell-fish. 







VV ' T 



Fig. 22. — Different Kinds of Vegetables. 

30. Vegetable Food. — Vegetables contain salts 
which we need to keep the blood pure. The list 
of them is a very long one, and includes the grains 
from which our breadstuffs are made, the vegeta- 
bles from the garden, and the fruits. Tea, coffee, 



FOOD AND DRINK 97 

and other substances from which drinks arc made 
are of vegetable origin. 

All the products of the vegetable kingdom are not 
alike useful. Some are positively hurtful ; indeed, 
the most deadly poisons are obtained from certain 
vegetables. Of such vegetables as have been found 
good for food, some are more nourishing than others ; 
some require very little preparation for use, while 
others are hard and indigestible. Great care must 
therefore be exercised, and many experiments made, 
before we can arrive at a complete knowledge in 
reference to these articles of diet. 

31. Bread. — Bread made from wheat-flour has 
been in use for many hundreds of years, and on this 
account, as well as because of its highly nourishing 
properties, has been aptly called " the staff of life." 
We never become tired of good bread as an article 
of daily food. 

The white kinds of flour contain more starch and 
less gluten than the darker, and are therefore less 
nutritious. The hard-grain wheat yields the best 
flour. In grinding wheat, the chaff or bran is sepa- 
rated by a process called ''bolting." Unbolted 
flour is used in making Graham bread. 

32. The form of bread most easily digested is 
that which has been " raised " or leavened, as that 



9© OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

makes it lighter. Unleavened bread requires much 
more mastication, or chewing. Hot bread is un- 
wholesome, because it cannot be thoroughly masti- 
cated, but is converted into a pasty, heavy mass that 
is not easily digested. 

33. Wheaten bread contains nearly everything 
necessary for sustaining life, except fat. This is 
commonly added in other articles of diet, especially 
in butter, — " bread and butter," consequently, form- 
ing an almost perfect article of food. The following 
experiment is recorded : " A dog eating only white 
bread, made of pure wheat, and freely supplied 
with water, did not live beyond fifty days. He 
died at the end of that time with all the signs of 
gradual exhaustion." Death took place, not be- 
cause there was anything hurtful in the bread, but 
because of the absence of one or more of the food- 
substances. 

34. The Potato. — The common or Irish potato is 
the vegetable most extensively used in this country 
and Great Britain. Among the poorer classes in 
Ireland it is the main article of food. While it is 
not so rich in nourishment as many kinds of food, 
it has some very useful qualities. It keeps well 
from season to season, and men do not tire of it. 
It is three fourths water, the remainder being chiefly 



FOOD AND DRINK 99 

Starch. It is rich in potash and other salts, and is 
believed to be highly valuable in warding otf dis- 
ease. 

35. Fruits. — Fruits are produced in this country 
in great abundance, and are remarkable for their 
variety and delicious flavor; consequently thev are 
consumed in large quantities, especially during the 
summer months. They contain a great deal of 
water, which is one reason why they are so import- 
ant as an article of food. The moderate use of ripe 
fruits, in their season, is beneficial, because they 
offer a pleasant substitute for the more heating diet 
that is used in cold weather. Unripe fruits contain 
starch, which, during the process of ripening, is 
changed into sugar. Such fruits are indigestible 
and should be avoided ; cooking, however, in part 
removes the objections to them. 

36. Coffee. — Coffee is an important article of diet 
for grown people, but is harmful for the young. 
Some persons who work hard with hand or brain 
find its effects beneficial. It helps to repair the 
waste occasioned by hard work, and gives additional 
strength to every part of the body. This has been 
proved in many ways. 

37. Tea. — Tea is a favorite beverage with many 
people, but it is not as wholesome as coffee. Its 



IOO OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

chief merit consists, perhaps, in its being a warm 
drink. Children should not drink coffee or tea. 




Fig. 23.— Gathering the Coffee Berries. 

Milk is better for them than any other liquid and 
for many grown people too. 

38. Chocolate. — Chocolate is made from the seeds 
of the cocoa-tree, a native of tropical America. Its 
effects are somewhat like those of coffee and tea, 
but it is richer in nourishment. If used too fre- 



FOOD AND DRINK 1 01 

quently, it is found somewhat injurious on account 
of its richness. 

39. Iced Drinks.- Iced water, iced milk, and iced 
tea are never absolutely harmless, and they should 
be avoided especially at meal-time. The sudden 
chilling- of the stomach is harmful. Ice-cream in 
small quantities is nourishing and harmless when 
made of fresh milk or cream and fresh eggs. Al- 
though it is in itself so cold, it is eaten slowly, and 
warmed by the mouth before it reaches the stomach. 

40. Candy. — " If ice-cream is good for us, is candy 
bad for us?" Not at all. Candy is not injurious 
except when it is made of poor materials, or is eaten 
in large quantities. There is no more reason why 
you should be denied candy in moderation than 
there is that people should go without sugar in their 
tea, coffee, or chocolate. 

Candies are sometimes made of poor materials, 
however, some of which will not dissolve in water; 
and they are sometimes colored with poisonous 
substances. If too much candy is eaten it cannot 
be properly digested, and it causes sickness. You 
will do well to avoid cheap candy, and to take care 
not to eat much of any kind of candy. Nuts also 
are nourishing, but they should be eaten in modera- 
tion. 



102 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

41. Alcohol not a Food. — Alcohol is obtained from 
sugar; but the effect of alcohol upon the human 
body is quite different from that of sugar. Sugar is 
nourishing ; alcohol taken in quantities robs the 
body of a part of the nourishment contained in the 
food. For two hundred years the armies and navies 
of certain countries were supplied with rum, or 
some other alcoholic drink under the name of 
" g r °g-" During recent years careful inquiries have 
been made to discover whether grog was serviceable 
or otherwise. 

42. The health of the soldiers has been poorer, 
the number of sick-days greater, and the inability 
to work more frequent among those to whom the 
grog was given. These inquiries were made when 
the quality of the food and all other circumstances 
were as nearly equal as possible. The conclusion 
reached is that alcohol is not a food. 

43. Alcohol in the United States Army. — Dr. F. H. 
Hamilton writes concerning the use of spirits by 
the Army of the Potomac in the late war. One gill 
of whiskey was, for a time, given daily to each 
soldier, on the ground that the hardship and expos- 
ure of the soldiers demanded it. He condemned 
the experiment and expressed the hope that " no 
such experiment will ever be repeated in the armies 



FOOD AND DRINK 103 

of the United States. My conviction is fixed, by the 
experience and observation of a lifetime, that the 
regular employment of alcoholic stimulants by a man 
in health is never, under any circumstances, useful. 
I make no exception in favor of cold, or heat, or 
rain, nor indeed in favor of old drinkers, when we 
consider them as soldiers." 

44. Does Alcohol Enable People to Resist Extreme 
Cold? — If this could be proved to be a fact, some of 
its boasted usefulness would receive support. In 
extremely cold climates the inhabitants are enabled 
to live comfortably by consuming great quantities of 
animal food alone, especially if it is abundantly oily. 
Will alcohol act in a similar way or assist in main- 
taining heat? Experience and observation say no. 

45. The testimony of those who have had experi- 
ence in the realms of snow and ice is unanimous 
against the cold-resisting property of alcohol. It is 
recorded of the men who served in Napoleon's cam- 
paign in Russia, under great exposure to cold, that 
death was hastened by the use of alcohol. The evi- 
dence of the Monks of St. Bernard is similar. Nu- 
merous Arctic explorers testify that not only is the 
temporary indulgence liable to result in most serious 
consequences, but that strong, able-bodied men in 
the habit of using alcoholic drinks are entirely un- 



104 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

fitted to resist the cold to which they must be ex- 
posed. The natives and travelers alike rely upon 
fresh animal food, especially fatty food, and avoid 
alcohol as a danger to life. 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER VIII 

i. What happens to the body when we move, breathe, or 
think ? 

2. Why do we need food ? 

3. Why do our bodies deserve good care ? 

4. Whose fault is it, sometimes, when we are ill ? 

5. Upon what does the quantity of food that a person needs 
depend ? 

6. Why do children need more food than grown people? 

7. What is food ? 

8. Of what does it chiefly consist ? From what is it ob- 
tained ? 

9. Why should good care be taken of cattle and sheep ? 

10. How are animals nourished? 

11. How are we nourished in part ? 

12. If we would have good pork, how should pigs be fed ? 

13. Into what two classes are food-substances divided ? 

14. What is meant by organic substances ? 

15. What is meant by inorganic substances? 

16. What is the most necessary food ? 

17. What is considered the purest water in nature ? 

18. Which is sometimes the most impure water we have ? 

19. Why should wells be dug at a distance from barns, out- 
buildings, and drains? 

20. How can impure water be made harmless ? 

21. What care should be taken of cisterns and wells? 

22. Describe pure water. 



FOOD AND DRINK 1 05 

23. What care should be taken regarding the use of water 

that has stood in pipes ? 

24. Do animals as well as human beings nerd salt? Why? 

25. Into how many classes are organic substances divided? 
Name them. 

26. What substances are found among the albuminoids? 
The fats or oils ? The sugars ? 

27. Why is starch placed with the sugars ? 

28. What are the grains? 

29. Why are green apples injurious? How can we tell when 
they are ripe? 

30. Could we live wholly on one class of food ? 

31. What one article of diet is more nourishing than any 
other ? Why is butter of service to the joints? What kind of 
butter should be avoided ? Why ? 

32. What should be eaten with eggs? 

33. Whv are meats nourishing? What kind of meat is the 
least nourishing ? 

34. Why is food cooked ? 

35. When should meat be put into boiling water? When 
into cold water ? 

36. Why is roasting perhaps the best way in which to cook 
large pieces of meat ? 

37. What kind of meat should be thoroughly cooked if we 
would avoid sickness ? 

38. What kind of fish are easily digested ? 

39. Why are vegetables necessary articles of food ? 

40. Are all vegetables, or products of the vegetable kingdom, 
good for food ? 

41. From what source do we obtain tea and coffee ? 

42. Why has bread been called " the staff of life " ? 

43. What kind of bread is most easily digested ? 

44. What is almost a perfect article of food ? 

45. What necessary articles of food are contained in potatoes? 

46. Why are fruits important as food ? 



106 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

47. For whom is coffee an important article of diet ? Why ? 

48. Is tea as nourishing as coffee ? 

49. Should children drink tea and coffee ? 

50. What is the best drink for them ? 

51. How does chocolate compare with tea and coffee as a 
drink ? 

52. When, in particular, should iced drinks be avoided? 
Why are they harmful ? 

53. Does ice-cream chill the stomach ? Why ? 

54. When is candy injurious ? Why is it injurious to eat a 
good deal of candy? 

55. What is the difference in effect between sugar and alco- 
hol ? 

56. How did the condition of soldiers who were given " grog " 
compare with that of soldiers who did not have it ? 

57. What conclusion regarding alcohol has been reached? 

58. Has the custom of giving whiskey to the soldiers in the 
U. S. Army been commended or condemned ? 

59. How are the inhabitants of cold climates kept warm ? 

60. Has experience proved that alcohol will enable people to 
resist extreme cold ? 

61. Mention three instances in which alcohol has resulted in 
serious consequences or loss of life when taken " to keep out 
the cold." 

62. On what do natives and travelers rely for protection 
against the cold ? 



CHAPTER IX 

DIGESTION 

i. Eating. — We cannot live without eating. When 
you were too young to ask for food some one took 
good care that you did not go hungry. When you 
grew older and could make known your needs you 
were occasionally allowed to choose for yourselves 
such food as you liked. In the last chapter you 
were told what kinds of food are most nourishing. 

2. The Diet. — The diet may be very simple, en- 
tirely free from pies, puddings, cakes, preserves, and 
all other rich food, and yet be nourishing and enjoy- 
able. Our health depends very largely upon our 
choice of food, the manner in which it is cooked, and 
upon digestion, which is the process by which food 
is prepared to become a part of the body. 

3. Where Digestion Takes Place.— In the process 

of digestion, food is changed from a solid to a liquid 

form, so that it may be easily carried to every part 

of the body. Digestion takes place in the stomach 

and intestines. In reality, however, digestion begins 

107 



io8 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 



in the mouth. We may say, almost, that it begins in 
the plate, because there some food, meat for instance, 
is cut into pieces suitable to be carried to the mouth. 
4. Mastication. — As soon as food is taken into the 
mouth it is cut and ground 
into small pieces by the 
teeth. In the movements 
of mastication, or chew- 
ing, the work is done by 
the lower jaw, because 
that is the one that can 
move. 

5. The Teeth (Figs. 24 
and 25). — The teeth are 
hard, white, bone-like 
bodies, held in place by 
roots running deeply into 
the jaw. The exposed 
part, or " crown," is pro- 
tected by a thin covering 




Fig. 2i. — Section of a Tooth. 

«, Enamel; b, Cavity; c c, roots, 

d. Body of the Tooth. 



of enamel which looks like ivory. It is the hardest 
substance in the body and is capable of striking fire 
with steel. The middle of each tooth is hollow, con- 
taining blood-vessels and nerves, which enter through 
a very small opening at the root (Fig. 25). 
6. Number of Teeth. — There are two sets of teeth. 



DIG EST 1 OX IO9 

The first teeth are called the milk-teeth. There are 
twenty of them, and they are small. At six or eight 
years of age, when the jaw grows larger, the milk- 
teeth begin to fall out to make room for the second 
set (Fig. 25). There are thirty-two teeth in the per- 
manent, or second, set — sixteen in each jaw. 

7. Kinds of Teeth in the Permanent Set.— The 
permanent teeth are divided into four classes : inci- 
sors, canines, bicuspids, and mo/ars. The incisors are 
small and sharp, for cutting the food. There are 
eight of them, and they are the four front teeth in 
each jaw. Next to the incisors are the canines ; one 
on each side of them, making four in all. The two 
in the upper jaw are called the eye-teeth and the 
two in the lower jaw are called the stomach-teeth. 
The two teeth back of each eye-tooth and back of 
each stomach-tooth are called the bicuspids. There 
are eight of them. The double teeth are called mo- 
lars or grinders. There are six in each jaw ; the last 
three teeth on each side. The last four molars are 
called wisdom-teeth and do not usually appear until 
a person is about twenty-one years old. 

8. Care of the Teeth. — The teeth should be 
brushed after eating to remove the food that has ad- 
hered to them. The enamel, if once destroyed, is 
never formed again, and the teeth are likely to decay. 



110 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

On this account we should be careful to avoid bit- 
ing hard substances that will break the enamel. Chil- 
dren should never crack nuts with their teeth. 

9. Both Sets of Teeth. — Both sets of teeth require 
good care. The permanent set is more healthy if the 



4 3 




o 4." 3 2 1" 

Fig. 25. — Section of the Jaw. 
i'» 2', 3', 4'. 5', the Milk-teeth; 1" to 8", the Germs of the Perma- 
nent Set. 

first set receives proper care. Little children can be 
taught to use a tooth-brush. The first teeth should 
be filled if necessary. If a dentist is consulted once 
or twice a year regarding the care of the teeth, he 



DIGESTION 



will know when the enamel is injured, and will re- 
pair the injury with little expense and little or no 
inconvenience to the patient. 

io. The Care of the Enamel.— When anything is 
to be removed from between the teeth, do not use 
metal toothpicks, or pins, as they may crack the 
enamel, but use a piece of floss such as dentists use, 
or awooden toothpick : and do this in private, never 
in the presence of any one. Care should be taken in 
the use of tooth-powder. Never use anything grittv. 
Very cold and very hot drinks may crack the enamel. 

ii. Saliva. — As soon as the mastication of the 
food begins, it is moist- 
ened by a colorless, 
watery, frothy fluid 
called saliva. An organ 
is a part of the body 
which has a special 
duty to perform. The 
saliva comes by small 
tubes from little spongy 
organs called the sali- 
vary glands, six in 
number, situated near 
the mouth (Fig. 26). They resemble bunches of 
grapes with tubes for stems and stalks. In the 




Fig. 26. — The Head of a Horse, 
showing the large salivary gland 
(a), its duct (/;), the muscles of mas- 
tication (c, d, e, f, and g). 



112 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

horse and other animals that feed upon dry and 
coarse fodder and require an abundant supply of 
saliva, we find large salivary glands, as well as 
powerful muscles of mastication. There is sufficient 
saliva flowing from these glands at all times to keep 
the mouth moist ; but when we are eating, the saliva 
flows very freely, because it is necessary to the 
proper moistening of the food. 

12. Uses of Saliva. — The food is softened and 
moistened by the saliva. As portions of the food 
are dissolved or melted by it, we can enjoy the taste 
of them. Candy would not be enjoyable without 
the saliva to dissolve it. 

13. Food that has been well moistened is easily 
swallowed. Water and other fluids taken at meal- 
time cannot take the place of saliva; on the other 
hand they weaken it, and in so doing destroy a 
portion of the flavor of the food. If the food is 
properly masticated, the saliva will be sufficient for 
its moistening. 

14. The saliva is useful also in changing starch 
into sugar ; but this change is very slight. The 
chief use of the saliva is to moisten the food so that 
it may be easily swallowed. 

15. A Bad Habit. — Rapid eating is a bad habit to 
form. The food is swallowed before it is ready for 



DIGESTION 



"3 



the stomach to do its work 
upon it. Can you not re- 
member the scraping sensa- 
tion caused by food that has 
been hastily swallowed or im- 
properly masticated ? Indi- 
gestion may, and frequently 
does, result from rapid eating. 

16. The Foodpipe.— The food 
when swallowed passes 
through a pipe called the 
foodpipe, or gullet, into the 
stomach. This pipe is about 
nine inches long. 

There is another pipe just 
in front of the gullet called 
the windpipe. This extends to 
the lungs, and through it we 
breathe. 

17. When we swallow, the 

windpipe is covered by a lid, 

so that no food can enter the 

lungs. If this lid does not shut FlG - 27. —Aliment ary 
. , , , , r Canal, including Gullet, 

quickly enough, a drop of Stomach> Large and Small 

liquid or a small piece of food Intestines. 

may enter the windpipe and cause a severe fit of 




114 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

coughing or choking. When people, old or young, 
try to eat and speak at the same time, there is 
danger of choking. Never talk Avhen there is any 
food in the mouth. Laughing is even more dan- 
gerous than talking at that time. Sometimes a 
slap upon the back of one who is choking will help 
him to cough up the obstacle. Children, when vio- 
lently choking, should be held with their heads 
down and heels up, and vigorously shaken or struck 
between the shoulders. 

1 8. The Stomach. — The stomach is a hollow pear- 
shaped bag (Fig. 29), holding from three pints to two 
quarts. It has two openings: the one through 
which the food enters and where the gullet ends 
is called the cardiac or heart orifice, because it is near 
the heart ; the other, through which the food goes 
out and into the intestines, is called the pylorus, or 
" gate-keeper." The pylorus guards the entrance 
into the intestines, and permits the food to pass out 
after it has been properly acted upon in the stomach. 
Things like coins or buttons, that are not food are 
allowed to pass, because they can be of no use if 
retained. 

19. The Gastric Juice. — As soon as the food gets 
into the stomach an acid fluid, clear and without 
color, flows out, drop by drop, from millions of little 



DIG EST 10 X 115 

tubes in its walls. This fluid is called the gastric 
juice i and contains a substance called pepsin, which 
helps us to digest our food. The quantity of gastric 
juice used for this purpose at each meal is not less 
than three or tour pints. 

20. Action of the Gasteic Juice. — There is also a 
constant churning motion caused by the contraction 
of the muscles of the stomach, which mixes the food 
thoroughly with the gastric juice. This juice acts 
on the albuminoids which are contained in meat, 
eggs, and in general all animal substances, but has 
very little effect on starchy food. 

21. Action of the Stomach.— If we could see all this 
wonderful action which is going on in the stomach, 
how interesting it would be to watch it ! On account 
of an accident which happened, some years ago, to a 
Canadian, named Alexis St. Martin, doctors have 
been able to see this process. The man had been 
shot in the side and an opening, which never closed, 
was made in his stomach. The opening was about 
an inch in diameter, and through it the doctors could 
see how digestion went on, how long a time was re- 
quired to digest his food, and what things were di- 
gested soonest. It was found that about two hours 
after an ordinary meal his stomach was empty. 
When he ate food that was not good for him, the in- 



n6 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 



side of his stomach looked unusually red, and could 
not do its work well. You may be sure this man 

was a great curiosity 



to the doctors, as 
well as to other per- 
sons who saw him. 

22. The Intestines. 
— The intestines are 
a continuation of the 
stomach and consist 
of a fleshy tube about 
twenty-five feet long 
(Fig. 28). The first 
twenty feet of this 
tube, called the small 
intestines, is about an 
inch and a half in 
diameter ; the other 

FIG. 28.-SECTION OF CHEST AND fiye ^ ^^ ^ 

Abdomen. 

a u P /,„„)'.. large intestine, is a 

A, Heart. E, Gall Bladder. & 

B, The Lungs. F, Stomach. continuation of the 

C, Diaphragm. G, Small Intestine, same tube, though 

D, The Liver. H, Large Intestine. l ar g- er round. To 

get all this length into the small space it occupies 
in the body, it is folded together a good many times, 
as we see in the figure. 




DIGESTION 117 

21. Food in the Intestines.— As soon as the food 
enters the intestines it eauses the flow of a new 
digestive fluid which enters through a small tube 
below the stomach. This fluid is formed by the 
union of two fluids, the bile and the pancreatic juice. 
The bile is formed by the liver, which is on the 
right side, in the upper part of the abdomen (Fig. 
28), and is stored in the gall-bladder, a little bag at- 
tached to the under side of the liver. Its color is a 
greenish yellow, and it has a very bitter taste. 

24. Bile and Pancreatic Juice. — The chief use of 
bile is to digest the fatty parts of the food upon 
which the gastric juice does not act. The pancreatic 
juice comes from the pancreas, situated behind the 
stomach. You may already know it by the name of 
" sweetbread," as the butchers call it. By means of 
the bile, the pancreatic juice, and a fluid formed in 
the intestines, called the intestinal juice, the undis- 
solved parts of the food we have eaten are changed 
in the intestines into a milky-white fluid, and are 
thus made ready to be taken into the blood. 

25. How the Body is Nourished.— The blood-vessels 
of the stomach absorb some of the fluid, but the 
small intestines absorb the most of it. The inside 
of the intestines is covered all over with millions of 
short thread-like bodies called villi, which give it 



115 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

the appearance and smoothness of velvet. These 
villi contain tubes through which the main absorp- 
tion takes place. The blood carries the nourishment 
to the teeth, the eyes, the nails, the bones, the 
muscles, and to every part of the body. 

26. Circumstances affecting Digestion. — At the end 
of three hours after a meal the stomach is ordinarily 
empty. How much time is needed by the intestines 
for the digestion of the food is not known. It de- 
pends largely upon the amount of starch and fat . 
which the food contains. 

27. Time required for Digestion.— The length of 
time required for complete digestion depends upon 
the kind of food, its amount and temperature. Pork 
and warm yeast-bread require more time than beef 
and cold bread. When we are very tired, either in 
mind or body, the food does not digest as readily. 
It is therefore a good plan to rest from hard work 
or romping play during a half-hour before eating. 

28. One should not eat immediately after having 
been very angry, as the stomach is not in condition 
at that time to digest food. Cheerfulness, on the 
other hand, aids digestion. In tne midst of a great 
grief or sorrow one cannot eat, and that is well, be-, 
cause the stomach does not act naturally at that time. 
Happiness, on the contrary, increases the appetite 



DIGESTION 119 

and helps digestion. The habit oi eating between 
meals is not a i;ood one, because the stomach needs 
rest as well as any other part of the body. Babies 
and sick people require food oftener than other 
people. 

29. Tobacco. — The effect of tobacco upon digestion 
is especially harmful. In tobacco-chewing there is 
a great waste of saliva, as there is in gum-chewing. 
In addition to the waste of saliva, the other juices 
are wasted, because they seem to be in constant ex- 
pectancy of the arrival of food, and they are ready 
to receive it. The delicate flavors of some foods .are 
lost entirely through the use of tobacco. When first 
used, it causes a sickness at the stomach which tends 
to poison the whole system for a time ; and certainly 
the stomach is not for some time after that able to 
do its work as usual. Smoking, chewing, and all 
narcotics disturb the action of the stomach. Tobacco 
is sometimes the cause of fatal illnesses. 

30. Alcohol. — Alcohol interferes seriously with 
digestion. It irritates the lining of the stomach, 
causes the walls of the stomach to grow hard and 
tough, causes loss of appetite, and the use of it often 
results in a distressing form of indigestion. 

When large amounts of it are taken soon after 
eating, it prevents digestion and causes great suffer- 



120 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 



ing in that way, or causes the stomach to forcibly 
free itself from this unnatural fluid. 

Alcohol should never be taken on an empty stom- 
ach. You may ask now, " When is it safe to drink 




Fig. 29.— The Stomach. 



Fig. 30. — The Kidneys. 



cider, beer, wine, whiskey, or any one of the alco- 
holic liquors ? " One word answers the question. 
Never. Alcohol dries or destroys the water in the 
system. It begins by parching the mouth and 
throat. It has the same effect upon the stomach. 
The different fluids used in digestion cannot af- 
ford to lose the water that the alcohol wastes. Of 
course, as alcohol creates a thirst, water is drunk, 



DIGESTION 121 

but the immediate need of water by the different 
fluids was not supplied. As a result the food is 
not properly digested. Alcohol toughens the food, 
making it harder, under any oircumstances to be 
digested. The liver, too, is often toughened and 
hardened and serious liver diseases developed by 
the use of alcohol. The kidneys suffer also by 
the use of alcoholic liquors. In fact, no organ of 
the body escapes unharmed when these liquors are 
used. 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER IX 

i. Upon what does our health largely depend ? 

2. What is digestion ? 

3. Why is food changed to a liquid form ? 

4. Where does digestion take place ? 

5. Where in reality does it begin ? 

6. How is food prepared in the plate for digestion ? 

7. How do the teeth assist in digestion ? 

8. What are the teeth ? 

9. Describe the different parts. 

10. How many sets of teeth are there ? Tell their names. 

11. Describe the milk-teeth. 

12. What are the incisors ? Canines? Bicuspids? Molars? 
Wisdom-teeth ? 

13. Why should the teeth be brushed ? 

14. What happens if the enamel is destroyed or injured ? 

15. Why should good care be taken of the first teeth ? 

16. Why should we go regularly to a dentist ? 

17. Why are pins and metal toothpicks dangerous to the 
enamel ? 



122 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

1 8. When may toothpicks or floss be used? 

19. What effect may hot or cold drinks have upon the 
enamel ? 

20. What kind of a fluid is saliva? 

21. What do the salivary glands resemble? 

22. When does the saliva flow most freely ? Why ? 

23. What makes candy taste good ? Why ? 

24. Why do water and other fluids destroy a portion of the 
taste of food ? 

25. What effect has the saliva upon starch? 

26. What illness may result from rapid eating? 

27. What is the foodpipe, or gullet? 

28. What is the windpipe ? 

29. What keeps food and drink out of the windpipe ? 

30. What is the stomach ? 

31. What and where are the two openings? 

32. What is the gastric juice ? 

33. What motion has the stomach ? 

34. What kinds of food does the gastric juice digest? 

35. Who was Alexis St. Martin ? 

36. What are the intestines ? 

37. How long is the tube which forms the small intestines ? 
The large intestine ? 

38. What two fluids assist digestion in the intestines? 

39. What organ supplies the bile ? What is the color and 
taste of bile ? 

40. Of what use is the bile ? 

41. What organ supplies the pancreatic juice ? 

42. How is the nourishment carried to different parts of the 
body? 

43. How soon after eating is the stomach ordinarily empty? 

44. Upon what does the length of time required for digestion 
depend ? 

45. When very tired should one eat heartily? Why net? 



DIGESTION 123 

46. Compare the effect produced upon digestion by anger 
and cheerfulness. Grief and happiness. 

47. Why is it not wise to eat between meals ? 

48. How does tobacco-chewing waste the saliva ? 

49. How does tobacco-chewing affect the taste of food ? 

50. What effect upon the stomach has tobacco when first 
used ? 

51. Has tobacco caused death ? 

52. What effect upon the stomach has alcohol ? 

53. How does alcohol affect digestion ? 

54. Should alcohol be taken immediately after eating? 
Should it be taken on an empty stomach ? When is it safe to 
drink alcoholic liquors ? 

55. Does alcohol dry the juices needed for digestion ? 

56. What effect has alcohol upon food ? 

57. How does alcohol affect the liver ? 

58. What can be said of all other organs ? 



CHAPTER X 

THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD 

i . Extract from " The History of a Mouthful of 
Bread." — Have you ever made up a story of what 
might be true of an umbrella, a fan, a clock, or a 
doll, and called it " The History of an Umbrella," 
" The Biography of a Fan," " The Old Clock's 
Wonderful Story," or " The Misfortunes of a Doll "? 
A Frenchman named Mace has written " The His- 
tory of a Mouthful of Bread," in which he has told 
many wonderful things that are true, although the 
story is imaginary. As this chapter will describe 
the blood, its circulation, and many other things 
about it, we will tell you what Mace has written 
about the blood. 

2. The Blood. — " You feel quite sure that blood is 

red, do you not ? Well, it is no more red than the 

water of a stream would be if you were to fill it 

with little red fishes. Suppose the fishes to be very, 

very small, as small as a grain of sand, and closely 

crowded together through the whole depth of the 

stream, the water would look red, would it not? 

124 



THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD 12$ 

And this is the way in which the blood looks red ; 
Only notice one thing : a grain of sand is a mountain 
in comparison with the little red bodies that float 
in the blood, which we have likened to little fishes." 

3. The Blood an Important Fluid.— The blood is 
the most important fluid in the body and it is the 
most abundant. Nourishment is carried by it to 
every part of the body, and without it we could not 
live. The blood is said to be about one eighth of 
the weight of the body. If you weigh eighty 
pounds, the blood in your body w r eighs ten pounds ; 
if you weigh one hundred and twenty pounds, the 
blood weighs fifteen pounds. If you prick your 
finger, or cut yourself, and lose .a few drops of blood 
you do not feel any weaker on account of it ; but if 
you are seriously injured and lose much blood, you 
will grow weak very rapidly. 

4. The Color of the Blood. — If a drop of blood 
should be examined with a microscope, it would be 
found to consist of a colorless fluid and tiny yellow 
bodies. These little bodies are so numerous that 
they make the blood look red, and we should not 
know that they are not red if the microscope did 
not prove it. The colorless fluid containing these 
tinv bodies consists of water and the nourishment 
furnished bv the food. 



126 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 




5. The Corpuscles (Fig. 31). — The little bodies in 
the blood are called corpuscles, 
because corpuscle means " a 
little body." They are very 
small, and if piled one above 
another it would take at 
least 14,000 of them to stand 
an inch high. There are 
two kinds of corpuscles, red 
F IG< 3I _the Blood-cor- corpuscles and white cor- 

PUSCLES, HIGHLY MAGNIFIED. , ^, , ., 

puscles. 1 he white ones 
are larger and fewer than the red ones. 

6. The Use of the Corpuscles. — We need food, 
and we need something else even more than that : 
we need air. Air is made of oxygen and nitrogen. 
We could live only a very short time without 
oxygen. Every part of the body needs it. We 
breathe oxygen into our lungs and breathe car- 
bonic-acid gas (a kind of lifeless air) out of them. 
The corpuscles take up the oxygen we inhale, and 
carry it all over the body ; but the carbonic-acid 
gas, that would hurt us if it should remain long in 
the body, they take to the lungs, which expel it. 
We shall learn more about this in the next chapter, 
which tells why and how we breathe. 

7. Coagulation. — As long as the blood remains in 



THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD \2J 

the body it keeps its fluid form ; but when it 
reaches the air it thickens. This thickening, or co- 
agulation, of the blood often saves us from bleeding 
to death, because it stops the mouths of the blood- 
vessels that have been cut or hurt, so that no more 
blood can come from them. When you cut your- 
selves, your parents or the doctor ties up the 
wound, so that the blood may thicken and thus stop 
running. 

8. Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood. — 
The blood is constantly in motion. It starts from 
the heart and is carried by a great number of tubes, 
large and small, all over the body. The flowing of 
the blood through these tubes is called the circula- 
tion of the blood. This was not understood until 
1619. The man who discovered the circulation of 
the blood was an Englishman, named William 
Harvey. He was a physician to the king of Eng- 
land. He was persecuted and ridiculed at first, but 
he lived nearly forty years after the discovery — 
long enough to see it accepted by every one, and 
to know that he was honored as a benefactor of 
mankind. 

9. The Heart. — The heart is the wonderful organ 
by which the circulation of the blood is carried on. 
It is in the middle of the chest, between the two 



128 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 



lungs, and is placed a little to the left side, where 
we can easily feel it beat. It is not much larger 
than your list. By its constant beating, which is 
never interrupted or changed excepting by excite- 
ment or illness, the blood is kept in motion. (Fig. 32.) 
10. Chambers of the Heart. — The heart contains 

four chambers, two 
on its right side 
and two on its left, 
separated by a 
wall, or partition, 
extending from the 
top of the heart to 
the bottom, so that 
no blood can pass 
from one side of 
the heart to the 
other. Each of 
these halves is then 
divided into a n 
upper and a lower 
chamber. The 




upper ones are 
called the ri^ht 



Fig. 32. — The Heart and Large Vessels 

A, Right Ventricle. D, Left Auricle. 

B, Left Ventricle. E, Large Artery. 

C, Right Auricle. F, Artery to the Lungs, and left auricles, 

or ears, the lower ones the right and left ventricles. 



THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD I 29 

Each chamber has a little valve, or trap-door, which 
opens to let the blood through, and closes to prevent 
its return. All these actions of the heart, which are 
contractions and expansions, are done without our 
thinking about them. If each heart-beat depended 
upon our remembering it, we should never be able 
to attend to anything else, and we could never go to 
sleep. 

11. The Arteries. — The tubes by which the blood 
is carried from the heart to all parts of the body are 
called arteries. The arteries start from the heart by 
a single hollow tube, which, like the trunk of a tree, 
throws off many branches. These branches are 
divided again and again, and constantly become 
smaller and smaller, until the finest of them are so 
very minute that we cannot see them without a 
microscope. 

12. The Veins. — The tubes by which the blood 
returns to the heart are the veins. At first they are 
not larger than the smallest artery of which we have 
spoken, but uniting as they advance, they grow 
larger, reminding us of the way in which the tiny 
rootlets of a plant unite to form the root, or the little 
streams flow together in order to form the mighty 
river. The large veins commonly lie side by side 
with the arteries going to the same part of the body, 



I30 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

but the blood within the veins and arteries flows in 
opposite directions. 

13. The Capillaries. — There are also other tiny 
tubes, a great deal finer than the finest hair, which 
connect the veins and arteries, forming a network 
between them. These are called capillaries, on ac- 
count of their being so small and hair-like. Capillus 
means a hair. The capillaries carry the blood 
from the arteries into the small veins, and these 
veins carry it into two of the largest veins of 
the body that empty into the right auricle of the 
heart. 

14. The Circulation of the Blood. — When the blood 
has passed through all the arteries of the body, and 
whatever is needed to nourish the different organs 
has been taken out of it, its color changes from a 
bright red to a dark bluish red. It is now impure, 
and, as it cannot nourish the body, it must be puri- 
fied. How is this done? 

The blood is carried by the veins into the upper 
chamber of the right side of the heart, which, you 
have been told, is the right auricle. This chamber 
contracts, and sends the blood down through the 
little trap-door into the right ventricle (Fig. 35). 
This ventricle contracts and sends the blood along 
the great artery through the lungs, where it is made 



THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD I 3 1 

pure and red again l>v the oxygen it gets there, and 
bv the impure gases it throws out. 

15. When this is done, the blood is sent out from 
the lungs into the left auricle, from which, through 
another little trap-door, it passes into the left ven- 
tricle. This contracts and hurries the blood through 
the large and small arteries to every part of the 
body. The little capillaries then take it into the 
small veins, which carry it into the larger ones, by 
which it is taken back into the heart, to begin again 
the same journey. 

16. The Uses of the Blood. — What we eat nour- 
ishes us when it is properly digested. The nourish- 
ment is carried by finy tubes from the stomach and 
intestines to the blood. The blood carries nourish- 
ment and oxygen to every part of the body ; the 
fluid part of the blood carrying the nourishment, 
and the corpuscles carrying the oxygen. The 
blood has another use. It removes the waste par- 
ticles of matter from different parts of the body and 
carries the carbonic-acid gas, or lifeless air, back to 

. the lungs to be breathed out by them. 

17. The Circulation of the Blood Briefly Told.— 
The circulation of the blood briefly told is this : The 
blood starts from the left ventricle, flows through 
the arteries to the capillaries, through the capillaries 



132 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 



to the veins, through the veins to the right auricle, 
from the right auricle to the right ventricle, from 
the right ventricle through an artery to the lungs, 
from the lungs through a vein to the left auricle, 
from the left auricle to the left ventricle, and from 
the left ventricle it goes over the same course again 
and again, never stopping as long as the heart con- 
tinues to beat. 

1 8. Appearance of the Blood. — If you have a mi- 
croscope, you will be very much interested in look- 
ing through it at the circulation of the blood in 
the web, or thin part, of a frog's foot (Fig. 33). 
Under the microscope you 
will see very plainly one set 
of vessels, the arteries, with 
the blood rushing through 
them from the heart, as the 
water rushes along a rapidly 
running river; then another 
set, the veins, with the blood 
flowing slowing in the oppo- 
Fig. 33.-Margin of Frog's s i te direction, as the water 

Web, very greatly mag- 
nified, creeps along the bed of a 

sluggish stream ; and between the arteries and the 
veins you can see the capillaries, which form a net- 
work with walls so fine that you can see through 




THE CIRCULATION OF THE /WOOD I 33 

them. Through these capillaries the tiny corpus- 
cles can pass only in " single tile." 

19. The Pulse. — The arteries are not so near the 
surface of the body as are the veins. There are- 
two good reasons for this. The arteries carry 
warmth as well as nourishment, to all parts of the 
body, and they should be farther from the surface 
on that account; and because they carry warmth 
and nourishment they need to be better protected 
from injury than the veins. The arteries are 
obliged to be near the surface in three or four parts 
of the body, and the wrist is one of them. 

20. By putting the fingers on the wrist, just back 
of the thumb, the throbbing motion of the blood can 
be felt, as it passes through the artery there. This 
throbbing motion is called the pulse. A physician 
can tell by the pulse whether the action of the heart 
is strong or weak, rapid or slow, regular or irregu- 
lar, and he will know what to do to make it right. 

21. Time required for the Circulation. — It is not 
known exactly how long it takes the blood to make 
the entire journey through the blood-vessels, from 
beginning to end, but it is estimated to take from 
one third to one half of a minute. 

22. The Intelligence of the Corpuscles and Capil- 
laries. — The corpuscles and capillaries show almost 



134 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

human intelligence in selecting what is needed by 
each part of the body, however far away it may be 
from the heart. The capillaries in the fingers, feet, 
ears, teeth, bones, and even the heart itself, know 
just what they must select from the blood as it 
passes through them, to make and keep their own 
special parts of the body well and strong. Is 
there any reason why we should prove ourselves 
less intelligent than these tiny bodies? There are 
many things that help or hinder the action of the 
heart ; and whatever does this affects the circula- 
tion of the blood. Among these helps ©r hin- 
drances are the positions of the body, exercise, and 
the feelings. Our intelligence will be shown by the 
use which we make of this knowledge. 

23. How Positions of the Body affect the Heart. 
— When we are lying in bed or on a couch the 
heart beats more slowly than at any other time. 
When we stand it beats more rapidly than when 
we sit ; and when we have been walking or exercis- 
ing, the heart beats most rapidly of all. When we 
are very tired, then, from having walked a long dis- 
tance, or from having worked or played very hard, 
it is sometimes better to lie down and give the heart 
a chance to rest a little while before we eat than to 
give the heart the extra work occasioned by eating. 



THE CIRCULATION OF T1JE BLOOD I 35 

At such times we should not lie down without 
being covered bv some Light, warm wrap. 

24. Exercise helps Recovery from Illness. — When 
people have been ill and confined to the bed or to 
the house for a long time, their physicians often say 
to them, as soon as they are strong enough to walk 
about lor a little while, " To-morrow, or the first 
pleasant day, you may go out to walk. The exer- 
cise will do you good." Why? Because the exer- 
cise of walking makes the heart beat more rapidly, 
the blood flows more freely, and the body receives 
strength sooner on that account. The time spent in 
walking should not be long at first, however. The 
need of pure air and how to supply it will be told 
in another chapter. 

25. Anger, Grief, and Cheerfulness. — Anger causes 
the heart to beat very fast, while grief causes it to 
beat slowly. It is possible for a blood-vessel to 
burst during a fit of anger. We can avoid ail dan- 
ger from anger by not giving way to it ; and if we 
are truly considerate of others, we will not injure 
their health by causing them unnecessary grief or 
care. 

" In company we have our tongues to watch ; in 
the family, our tempers; and when we are alone, 
our thoughts." " A merry heart is a good medi- 



ISO OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

cine," we are told ; and certainly cheerfulness or 
good humor, by assisting digestion, helps the heart 
to beat regularly and smoothly. 

26. Tight clothing of every description, from hats 
to boots, should be avoided. It presses upon the 
blood-vessels and prevents the free circulation of 
the blood. 

27. How to Stop the Flow of Blood. — When an 
artery is cut the blood comes from it in spurts or 
jets, and the color of the blood is bright red. A 
bandage should be applied immediately between the 
injury and the heart. Do not fear to make it too 
tight. The flow of blood must be stopped. If the 
blood flows steadily and is of a bluish red, it is 
from a vein, and the bandage should be applied 
directly over the wound or beyond it, and not be- 
tween the wound and the heart as in the case of a 
wounded artery. Sometimes a handful of mud or 
moist earth will stop the flow of blood. 

28. Tobacco. — Tobacco causes the heart to beat 
more rapidly than it is natural for it to do. As this 
rapid beating is not caused by breathing pure air, by 
natural exercise, or by the increased supply of nour- 
ishment, it is a positive injury to the heart. To- 
bacco gives the heart more work to do, and no help 
in doing it ; consequently the heart is weakened by 



THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD 



137 



it. A physiciaq knows when certain forms of heart 
5e are caused by tobacco, and naturally he ad- 
the patient to give it up. It hardly 

worth while to risk Losing one's health for the sake 
ol tobacco. 

29. ALCOHOL. — The effect of alcohol upon the heart 
is more serious than its effect upon any other organ 
of the body. Alcohol is a narcotic because it 
deadens the nerves, or makes 
them unable to act naturally. 
Cider, beer, whiskey, rum, 
wine, or any alcoholic liquor 
deadens the nerves that con- 
trol the flow of blood through 
the blood-vessels ; and as a 
result the blood flows with 
greater force and in larger 
quantity through them. The 
blood-vessels near the sur- 
face of the body become 
swollen, and they give the 
face a flushed appearance 
that is, in reality, a danger- 
signal. The hands become 
swollen and red on this ac- Fjc 34 _ Cap1] 

COUnL TERIES, AND VEINS. 




138 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 



30. Alcohol and the Brain. — One reason why alco- 
hol " goes to the head," as we say, is because the brain 
receives an unusual supply of blood, and becomes 
dull or stupefied in consequence. Alcohol, like to- 
bacco, causes the heart to do extra work and does 

not give it the 
strength with which 
to do it. The action 
of the heart is 
greatly weakened 
by alcohol 

31. Effect of Al- 
cohol on the Heart. 
— As the heart is the 
most necessary 
organ of the body, it 
is dangerous to 
weaken it in any 
way. The blood- 
vessels are 
weakened by alco- 
hol and are liable to 
burst. When the 




Fig. 35. — Section of Heart. 



A, Right Ventricle 

B, Left 

C, Right Auricle. 

D, Left Auricle. 



E, F, Inlets to the 

Ventricles. 

G, Artery to the 

Lungs. 
H, Large Artery, bursting of a blood- 

vessel occurs, it is generally in the head and there 
is no cure for it. Alcohol thins the blood be- 



THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD 1 39 

cause it robs it of the nourishment that it should 
contain. 

When accidents happen either to bones or muscles, 
it is very difficult to heal them if the blood has been 
weakened bv alcohol. When an " accident " patient 
is taken to a hospital, one of the first questions asked 
is, " Do you know if this patient uses alcohol ? " The 
doctors know that if such is the case the recovery 
of the patient will require more time than usual. 
Life-insurance companies ask very important ques- 
tions in regard to the use of tobacco, opium, and 
alcohol. Some companies will not insure the lives 
of those who use alcohol ; and in some cases they 
will not insure the lives of those who are employed 
in breweries or distilleries. 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER X 
i. Is the blood red ? Why does it look so ? 

2. Describe the size of the corpuscles. 

3. What is the most important fluid in the body? Why? 

4. What is the comparative weight of the blood ? 

5. Of what does the blood consist? 

6. Of what does the fluid consist? 

7. What does corpuscle mean? 

8. What kinds of corpuscles are there? 

9. Of what use are the corpuscles? 

10. What happens to the blood when it reaches the air? 

11. What is meant by the circulation of the blood ? 

12. Tell the story of the discovery of the circulation of the 
blood. 



I40 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

13. What is the heart? Where is it ? 

14. What keeps the blood in motion ? 

15. How many divisions has the heart? Describe them. 

16. What are their special names? 

17. What are the arteries? 

18. What are the veins ? 

19. What are the capillaries? What does capillns mean? 

20. Describe the change in the color of the blood. 

21. Where is the blood made pure and red ? 

22. Of what use is the blood ? Tell what each part of the 
blood carries to every part of the body. 

23. What other uses has the blood ? 

24. Describe briefly the circulation of the blood. 

25. How small are the capillaries ? 

26. Why are not the arteries near the surface ? 

27. Where is the pulse felt? What is the pulse? 

28. What can a physician tell by it? 

29. How much time is required for the blood to make its 
complete journey through the blood-vessels ? 

30. How do the corpuscles and capillaries show almost 
human intelligence? 

31. Tell how the position of the body affects the action of 
the heart. 

32. When is it a good plan to lie down before eating? 

33. Why does walking help invalids to become stronger? 

34. What effect has anger upon the heart? Grief? 

35. When should we watch our tongues? Tempers? 
Thoughts ? 

36. What effect upon the heart has cheerfulness ? Why? 

37. Why should tight lacing be avoided ? 

38. How can we tell when an artery has been cut ? Where 
should the bandage be tied ? 

39. How can we tell when a vein has been injured ? Where 
should the bandage be tied in that case? 

40. What will sometimes stop the flow of blood ? 



THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD 14 1 

41. What effect has tobacco upon the heart? 

42. How does the effect of alcohol upon the heart compare 
with its effect upon other organs ? 

43. Why is alcohol a narcotic? 

44. What effect has alcohol upon the nerves of the blood- 
vessels? 

45. What happens in consequence? 

46. What gives the face its flushed appearance when alcohol 
is drunk ? 

47. Why does alcohol weaken the action of the heart? 

48. What is the most necessary organ in the body? 

49. What may happen to the blood-vessels that have been 
weakened by alcohol ? 

50. What effect has alcohol upon the blood? 

51. When is it difficult for injured bones or muscles to heal? 

52. Will all insurance companies insure the lives of those 
who use alcohol ? 



CHAPTER XI 

RESPIRATION 

i. Air a Necessity. — A constant supply of air is 
more necessary to the body than food or drink. 
Without air we could not breathe, and without 
breathing we could not live. Air nourishes the 
body and purifies the blood. We breathe so easily, 
so noiselessly, that we do not think much about it, 
unless we have been exercising violently, or we are 
in an impure atmosphere, or we are ill with some 
disease that interferes with our breathing. 

The parts of the body and the organs of the 

body are wonderfully adapted to their different 

uses; and we wonder sometimes, as we study them, 

which one is most perfectly planned. Each one 

seems perfect in its own way ; and without trying to 

find out which is most perfect, we can be truly 

happy that they are ours. As they are ours, it is 

our privilege to take care of them ; and this we can 

do very easily, if Ave choose to do so. In this 

142 



R ESP IRA TION 



143 



chapter we shall study the organs with which we 
breathe, and their need of pure air. 

2. The Lungs (Fig. 36). — The lungs are the 
organs with which we breathe. There are two of 




Fig. 36. — Organs of the Chest. 



A, Lungs. 

B, Heart. 



D, Pulmonary Artery. 

E, Trachea. 



them, one on each side of the chest, which they 
almost fill. The substance of the lungs is soft, 



144 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

elastic, and very much like a sponge, ana when 
thrown into water it will float. 

3. The Tubes for the Passage of the Air (Fig. 41). 
— Air enters the lungs through the nostrils, mouth, 
and certain tubes. The longest of these tubes is the 
trachea, or windpipe, which passes down the front 




Fig. 37.— Section of the Lungs. 
of the neck, in front of the foodpipe. If you 
should press your fingers upon the windpipe, it 
would give you an unpleasant sensation. If the 
pressure should be continued and no air could enter 
the lungs, you would suffocate. 



RESPIRATION 145 

4. The Larynx | Figs. 38 and 41).— At the top of the 
wind-pipe is a peculiar box called the larynx. In 
that box are the vocal cords, two elastic bands by 
means of which, as air passes over them, we can 
speak, sing, laugh, and shout. The front of this box 
is called " Adam's apple," and it can be felt moving 
up and down when anything is swallowed. 

5. Epiglottis (Fig. 41). — At the top of the windpipe, 
which opens at the back of the mouth, is the cover or 
lid of which we have already spoken. It is called the 
epiglottis. This opens to let the air pass in and out, 
and closes when we swallow our food. Sometimes 
it fails to shut down over the opening, and the food 
goes down the windpipe instead of the foodpipe, 
causing us to choke until we cough it up again. Do 
you remember what to do in cases of choking? As 
choking is liable to occur only in eating or drinking, 
we spoke of it in that connection. 

6. Bronchial Tubes (Fig. 38).— The lower end of the 
windpipe is divided into two parts or branches, one 
going into each lung (Fig. 37). These large branches 
are again divided, something like the arteries, into 
many little branches, or broiicliial tubes as they are 
called, which gradually become smaller, until they 
are as small as the finest hair. On the ends of each 
of these little tubes is a cluster of little pouches or 



146 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 



" air-cells " (Fig. 39), having very thin walls ; and the 
whole is covered with a very firm network of capil- 
laries, of which we learned in the last chapter. 
When we take in a breath, these cavities are filled 





Fig. 38. — Larynx, Trachea, 
and Bronchial Tubes. 



Fig. 39 — Diagram and Section 
of the Air-cells. 



with air and the chest swells out ; but when the air 
is forced out, the chest falls again. The lungs 
consist principally of these tubes and "air-cells " and 
the blood-vessels which pass through them. 

7. Respiration. — The act of breathing consists of 
two parts — inspiration, or drawing air into the lungs, 



RESPIRA 770. V 147 

and expiration, or forcing it out again. Inspiration 
and expiration, the two parts of breathing, are called 
respiration. In inspiration the chest expands in 
length, breadth, and height so that the lungs may 
swell. The upward and outward motions of the 
chest can be seen in the lifting of the ribs. These 
two motions can be felt by placing the hands on 
the sides of the body or just below the collar-bone. 
The downward motion is caused by a muscle or 
partition within the body called the diaphragm. In 
expiration the chest sinks or falls as the air passes 
out of the lungs. 

8. The Diaphragm. — This muscle is a thin parti- 
tion which separates the chest from the abdomen. 
In its natural position it rises up into the chest 
like a dome. When we breathe the air into the 
lungs it contracts until it is flat. As soon as the air 
is driven out of the lungs the diaphragm rises into 
its domelike position again. These movements go 
on, without our thinking about them, as long as we 
live. 

9. Rapid and Controlled Breathing. — We breathe 
about eighteen times a minute. When the heart 
beats more rapidly than usual it sends the blood to 
the lungs more rapidly and we must breathe faster 
in order to supply the necessary amount of air. 



I48 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

Sometimes the heart beats so fast that we cannot 
supply all of the air needed, and then we are dis- 
tressed for the want of it. This takes place when 
we run until we are " out of breath." 

10. Although we breathe unconsciously almost all 
of the time, the breathing can be controlled some- 
what by the will. We can breathe more or less 
rapidly when we choose to do so, and we can " hold 
the breath " for twenty or thirty seconds. By prac- 
tice we can hold the breath for a minute and a half 
or two minutes. This might be useful to us if we 
were obliged to pass through a burning building or 
any place where the air is bad. 

11. Composition of Air. — The air we breathe is 
composed of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen. Oxy- 
gen is powerful and burning; too much so for us 
to breathe unless it is mixed with something else. 
Nitrogen is weak, and cannot alone support life. 
These gases are so mixed that there is four times as 
much nitrogen as oxygen — that is to say, one fifth 
of common air is oxygen. A Frenchman named 
Lavoisier made this discovery in 1778. 

12. The Nourishment in Air.— When air is taken 
into the lungs it loses oxygen and receives carbonic- 
acid gas. We learned this in the chapter on the 
circulation. The blood loses carbonic-acid gas and 



RESPIKA TION 1 49 

takes up oxygeh. The corpuscles need oxygen, 
while the fluid portion of the blood needs food and 
drink. The air, then, supplies one kind of food and 
articles of diet supply another kind. Air we must 
have constantly ; but food is taken at regular inter- 
vals, three or four times only during the day. N 
The sensation of hunger shows that we need food. 
The sensation of suffocation shows that we need air. 

13. The Exchange of Gases in the Lungs. — The air 
and the blood do not come in contact — they are 
separated by the walls of the air-cells and of the 
blood-vessels, — how then do the two gases, oxygen 
and carbonic acid, exchange places? These walls 
are so thin and delicate that gases can pass through 
them, although liquids cannot do so. This may be 
beautifully shown by suspending a bladder contain- 
ing impure blood in a jar of oxygen. At the end of 
a few hours the oxygen will have diminished, the 
blood will be scarlet in color, and carbonic-acid gas 
will be found in the jar. 

14. If this exchange takes place outside of the 
body, it must take place much more perfectly within 
it, where the circumstances are more favorable. The 
walls of the vessels and of the air-cells are thin and 
moist, and the currents of air and blood are in con- 
stant motion. Both parts of this process of ex- 



ISO OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

change are equally important. Without oxygen life 
ceases ; if carbonic-acid gas is not thrown off, it acts 
like a poison, producing unconsciousness, convul- 
sions, and even death. 

15. Causes of Impure Air. — Stoves and furnaces 
used for heating rooms often cause death by the 
gas which they send out. Where such heaters are 
used, the rooms should have plenty of fresh air. 
We have sometimes noticed what a close, disagree- 
able odor there is when we enter a room in which 
there are a great many persons. It is because fresh 
air is shut out. The unpleasant odor is caused 
partly by the animal matter contained in the moist- 
ure that is breathed out of our lungs as well as 
what is thrown off by perspiration. Air that is 
pure has no odor. 

16. When sick we throw off with our breath and 
from our body impurities that often cause those 
who are near us to take the disease, or, as we say, 
to ^catch " it. For instance, scarlet-fever, smallpox, 
measles, and other diseases which we call conta- 
gious are given by a person who has them to those 
who come very near him. The better a sick-room 
is ventilated, the less liable are those about the 
patient to take the disease. 

17. Protection against Impure Air. — The sense of 



R ESP IRA TION I 5 { 

smell helps us to avoid poisonous and impure air. 
Coal-gas is easily detected by the smell. So is the 
gas that is used for lighting houses and other build- 
ings. Either of these gases could produce death by 
suffocation. Whenever an unpleasant odor is de- 
tected in the air, it will always be safe to thor- 
oughly air the room or building, or leave the place. 
Sometimes cesspools or drains poison the air so 
completely that fevers are caused in consequence. 

1 8. Another Protection. — The nostrils have an- 
other protection against the breathing in of impuri- 
ties. The little hairs which the nostrils contain 
catch many particles of dust and many impurities of 
the air. They catch them and keep them from 
harming us. This is another reason why we should 
inhale through the nose. We told you in another 
chapter of the danger in breathing cold air in 
through the mouth. The bronchial tubes also con- 
tain the tiniest of tiny hairs, and for a similar pur- 
pose to that of the hairs in the nostrils. They 
catch many particles of dust, as we have had proof 
many times upon clearing the throat and lungs after 
having inhaled smoke or fine dust in a railway car. 

19. Moisture in the Breath. — On a very cold 
morning, when we are walking fast or running, we 
notice a vapor, like steam, coming from our mouths. 



152 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

A lady's veil or a man's mustache will often be 
covered with this vapor, frozen and looking like 
little particles of ice. The window-panes in our 
rooms, in very cold weather, are sometimes covered 
with the pretty frostwork that children admire. 
We notice it more when a room has been tightly 
closed during the night. 

20. This appearance is caused by the air that is 
breathed from our lungs. It shows that the air 
we send out from our lungs contains water, which 
was not in the air we breathed into them. In hot 
weather we cannot notice this moisture unless we 
breathe upon a looking-glass or some other polished 
surface ; then we shall see that the object we have 
breathed upon is dim and feels wet. 

21. Carbon and Oxygen. — If we are all the while 
breathing out carbonic-acid gas, and all the people 
in all the cities and large towns as well as in the 
country are doing the same, how does it happen 
that there is any pure air left for us to breathe ? 
Remember also that not only men, women, and chil- 
dren, but all animals, even little birds, fishes, and 
worms, need the oxygen of the air. Our fires and 
lights consume much more. Why has not all the 
oxygen been used up long ago ? Where does the 



RESPIRATION 153 

needed supply come from ? and what becomes of 
the carbonic-acid gas ? 

22. It has been said that we breathe through the 
pores of the skin as well as through the lungs. We 
do not think of that, however, when we speak of 
breathing; we think simply of the lungs. Plants 
breathe through tiny holes in their leaves, and they 
do not need oxygen. They need carbonic-acid gas 
as much as we need to dispose of it. Can you now 
answer the question, " What becomes of the car- 
bonic-acid gas ? " 

23. What Plants Breathe. — This separation of the 
carbon from the oxygen is what the trees, grass, 
and plants are doing w T ith the carbonic-acid gas. 
They take up the carbon from the impure air and 
leave the oxygen. Carbonic-acid gas contains the 
true food for the vegetable world. The carbon is 
retained and used, — it enters into fruits, grains, and 
eatable roots, — while the oxygen is given back for 
the nourishment of the animal world. Nothing is 
wasted. What a wonderful plan is this for purify- 
ing the air! We breathe out carbonic-acid gas, 
which the plants need. We need oxygen, which the 
plants separate from the carbonic acid and give back 
to us. 

24. City Air. — How is city air purified ? It is 



154 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

purified partly by the wind. There is not enough 
vegetation in cities to use up the carbonic-acid gas, 
but the winds blow the city air to the country and 
to the ocean, and the air of the country and of the 
ocean is blown back to the city. Also, the rain in 
falling washes out some of the impurities in the air. 
This is a good reason for disconnecting, in the be- 
ginning of a shower of rain, the pipes that carry 
water from the roofs of buildings to cisterns, and 
connecting them a little while later, after the air is 
purified. It is also a good reason why it is not 
safe to eat snow. 

25. Ventilation. — The subject of ventilation, 
which means a plan by which impure air can escape 
from a room and pure air enter, is an important one. 
If we would keep our heads clear and our bodies in 
health we must have sufficient oxygen to breathe. 
The air in lecture-rooms, public buildings, churches, 
schoolhouses, and our own homes should be pure, 
and there are excellent methods by which it can be 
made and kept so. We can attend to the matter of 
ventilation in our homes, if we can do no more ; and 
in this way we may avoid many and serious lung 
troubles. 

26. If there are two openings in a room, one for 
the escape of impure air and the other for the admis- 



RESPJRA TJON 



155 



sion of pure air, and if the openings arc Large 
enough, the ventilation will be good. A door and 
a window, each opening into the outer air, will 
ordinarily ventilate a small apartment ; or a window 
alone will answer, if it is open both above and 
below, and the open space at each end is not less 
than one inch for 



each person in the 
room, when the 
window is about 
a y a r d wide 
(Fig. 40). The ] 
impure heated f|| 
air rises. A 
"draught'' is 
never necessary to 
good ventilation. 
The temperature 
of the air admitted 
may be warm or 
cold. It is 
thought by many 
that if the air is 




Fig. 40. — Showing Manner of Ventilat- 
ing BY INSERTING STRIP OF WOOD BE- 
NEATH Lower Sash of Window. 



cold it is pure ; but this is an error, for cold air 
will receive and keep the same impurities as warm 
air. 



I56 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

27. Shall we open our bedrooms to the night air? 
Florence Nightingale says that night air is the only 
air that we can then breathe : " The choice is be- 
tween pure air without and impure air within. An 
open window, most nights in the year, can hurt no 
one. In great cities night air is the best and purest 
to be had in the twenty-four hours. I could better 
understand, in towns, shutting the windows during 
the day than during the night." 

28. Tobacco. — Tobacco, by its effect upon the lin- 
ings of the nose, mouth, throat, and lungs, causes 
great discomfort, at times, not alone to the one who 
is using it, but to those who are obliged to breathe 
the smoke of tobacco. It dries the throat so that 
the voice becomes husky, it produces coughing, and 
it is quite impossible to sing in an atmosphere which 
contains tobacco-smoke. The habit of swallowing 
tobacco-smoke is injurious because it irritates the 
delicate lining of the bronchial tubes. 

29. Alcohol. — Alcohol, in weakening the blood- 
vessels, weakens the lungs, because they are in such 
peculiarly close relation to the blood-vessels. You 
will remember that the exchange of gases takes 
place in the lungs through the walls of the air-cells 
and those of the blood-vessels. The breath of one 
who has taken any alcoholic liquor into his stomach 



RESPIRA TiON 



157 



is tainted by it. The kind of liquor taken can often 
be told by the smell of his breath. The air coming 




Fig. 41.— Section of the Mouth and Throat. 

A, The Tongue. C, Vocal Cord. L, Larynx. 

B, The Palate. E, Epiglottis. N, Trachea. 

O, CEsophagus. 

from his lungs contains an additional impurity. He 
should be very careful not to breathe into any one's 



158 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

face, but particularly should he avoid breathing- 
into a baby's face. 

30. Men who are preparing for a test of strength 
or skill in athletic sports, rowing for instance, are 
not allowed to touch a drop of anything contain- 
ing alcohol, and they are absolutely forbidden to 
smoke. T. W. Higginson said this is one reason 
why he is in favor of athletic sports in colleges. 
Why are the men denied alcohol and tobacco? 
Because their trainers know, and they know, that it 
really weakens them. Their hearts are not as 
strong on account of it, and that fact alone inter- 
feres with their breathing. They cannot control 
their breathing when alcohol is in their blood as 
they can when the blood is free from it. 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XI 

1. What is more necessary to the body than food or drink? 

2. What effect has it upon the body? Upon the blood ? 

3. What are the lungs ? Describe them. 

4. How does air enter the lungs ? 

5. Describe the trachea. 

6. What is the larynx ? 

7. Of what use are the vocal cords ? 

8. What is the epiglottis? What is its use? 

9. What are the bronchial tubes ? 

10. Where are the air-cells? 

11. Of what do the lungs consist ? 

12. What is inspiration? Expiration ? Respiration? 



RESPIRATION 159 

13. What is the diaphragm ? 

14. When docs it become almost Hat? When does it be- 
come domelike ? 

15. How often do we breathe? 

16. How is the breathing affected by the rapid beating of the 
heart ? When do we become " out of breath " ? 

17. Can we control our breathing for a short time? How 
long can the breath be held ? 

iS. When might this power be of use to us? 

19. Of what is air composed ? In what parts ? 

20. Who discovered the different parts of air? 

21. What happens to air when it is taken into the lungs ? 

22. How often must we have air? Food? 

23. Could liquids pass from the blood-vessels to the air-cells ? 

24. What odor has pure air? 

25. How is it easy to "catch " some diseases? 

26. Give two reasons why a sick-room should be ventilated. 

27. What protection have we against breathing impure air? 

28. What should be done when we detect any unpleasant 
odor ? 

29. What poisonous odors may cause fevers ? 

30. What second protection have we against the breathing 
in of impurities ? 

31. Give two reasons for inhaling through the nose. 

32. What proofs have we that there is moisture in the air 
which we exhale ? 

33. How do plants breathe ? What do they need to breathe ? 

34. How is the air in the country purified ? 

35. How is city air purified ? 

36. Why is it a good plan in the beginning of a shower to 
disconnect pipes that carry water from roofs of buildings to 
cisterns ? 

37. What does ventilation mean ? 

38. Why do we need fresh air? 

39. How may we avoid many serious lung troubles ? 



l6o OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

40. Tell how a room may be ventilated. 

41. Who was Florence Nightingale? 

42. How does tobacco injure the throat? 

43. Why is it injurious to swallow tobacco-smoke? 

44. Why does alcohol weaken the lungs? 

45. How does the exchange of gases take place in the lungs ? 

46. How does alcohol affect the breath ? 

47. What men are never allowed to use a drop of any liquor 
containing alcohol ? Why ? 

48. What effect has it upon their power to control their 
breathing ? 



CHAPTER XII 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 

i. Growing Powers. — We have been studying 
about digestion, circulation, and respiration, which are 
common to vegetables, animals, and human beings. 
These are growing powers. As the body is nour- 
ished by the blood which circulates to all its parts, 
giving to each organ what it needs, so the trees and 
plants, by their roots, stems, and trunks, convey a 
fluid called sap through all their parts. This sap 
does for them what the blood does for our bodies. 
In other words, it causes their growth and nourishes 
them. Besides this, the leaves, which may be called 
the lungs of the plant, take from the air a gas which 
is hurtful to man, but which is necessary to the life 
of the plant. 

2. The Nerves. — We, as well as all animals, have, 
in addition to these growing powers, organs by 
which we know what is going on around us; what 
to do for our own pleasure and, better yet, for the 
pleasure of others ; how to avoid certain dangers 

i6i 



162 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

and to help others avoid them ; but more wonder- 
ful still, they give us the power of reason. We 
may be glad to live, to breathe, to eat, to sleep, and 
to move ; but the power to think is a constant joy. 
In this respect human beings are far superior to 
plants and animals. 

3. We are told that 

" The flowers in their perfume 
Ask sweetness of you ; 
A love that is tender, 
A life that is true.'' 

Although flowers cannot speak, because they have 
not the power of thought, they certainly do influ- 
ence us. Animals possess remarkable intelligence, 
and when we w r ish to tell how much, they know we 
say " they can almost speak." The organs that give 
us the power of feeling, motion, and thought are the 
nerves. 

4. The Nervous System. — The nerves are divided 
into two classes or systems : those that control the 
voluntary motions of the body, and those that con- 
trol the involuntary motions. The voluntary motions 
such as walking, eating, and thinking are controlled 
by the brain in the head, the spinal cord in the back- 
bone, and some of the nerves branching off from 
them. This system is called the cerebrospinal system. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 1 65 




Fig. 42. — The Cerebrospinal System. 



164 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

The involuntary motions concerned in the processes 
of digestion, of circulation, and of respiration are 
known as the sympathetic system of nerves. These 
two systems form the entire nervous system. The 
nerves are also divided into two other classes ; and 
they are called nerves of sensation and nerves of 
motion. The nerves of sensation communicate with 
the spinal cord or the brain for advice or direc- 
tion ; and the nerves of motion carry back the reply. 

5. The Brain.— The brain is one of the most im- 
portant and useful organs in our body. It fills the 
great cavity of the skull ; it is egg-shaped, and it is 
divided into two parts — the cerebrum, or large brain, 
and the cerebellum, or small brain (Figs. 45 and 50). 
It is a curious, whitish, pulpy-looking substance, 
marked all over in wavy furrows, about an inch 
deep, looking something like a cloth that has been 
squeezed in the hand. 

6. It weighs about three pounds, or nearly fifty 
ounces, in a grown person, although some brains 
weigh much more. The brains of Daniel Webster 
and Agassiz each weighed fifty-three and a half 
ounces. These are among the largest brains of 
which the weight is known. A large brain is 
thought to be the sign of a great mind ; but the 
quality, as well as the size, must be considered. The 



THE NEK VOL 'S .V 1 "S TEM 



165 



brain oi an idiot docs not often weigh more than 
thirty ounces. 

7. The Cerebrum (Fig. 43). — The cerebrum, or 

brain proper, tills 
up the top and 
front of the skull 
and is very much 
1 a rge r than the 
c e r e b e 1 1 u m, or 
" little brain." A 
deep groove di- 
vides it lengthwise 
into two equal 
parts called hemi- 
spheres. The out- 
side is marked all 
over with winding, 
irregular furrows, p IGi 43> . 
as has been said. 
It is gray in color, 
and contains nerve-cells, as well as a great many 
blood-vessels. This gray matter, which is about a 
fifth of an inch thick, goes down into all the furrows. 
On that account there is much more of it than if it 
covered only the top of the brain as a smooth sur- 
face. The interior of the brain is composed almost 




-Upper Surface of the Cere- 
brum. 

A, Longitudinal Fissure. 

B, The Hemispheres. 



1 66 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

entirely of a white substance made up of nerve-fibers 
(Fig. 44). 

8. The Cerebellum.— The little brain is divided, 
like the cerebrum, into two parts. The surface is 
composed of the gray matter, and the interior of the 
white matter. It is again divided by many ridges 
which run parallel to each other, and which go down 
deeply into the white matter, looking somewhat like 




Fig. 44.— Lower Surface of the Brain. 
The numbers refer to the pairs of nerves. 

the trunk and branches of a tree. The cerebellum is 

about one eighth the size of the large brain (Fig. 45). 

9. The Medulla Oblongata.— From the front part 



THE XERVOUS SYSTEM 

of the little brain, and from 
the under part of the brain 
proper, proceeds a collection 
of fibers or little cords, which 
are all joined together and go 
into the spinal column. This 
is called the medulla oblongata 
(Fig. 45). At the base of the 
brain and above the place 
where the cord enters the 
spinal column are twelve 
pairs of nerves (Fig. 44). These 
nerves are round cords of a 
glistening white appearance, 
and are well protected from 
injury. 

10. When the cord enters 
the spinal column it is called 
the spinal cord or the spinal 
marrow. It is contained in the 
holes which, as we have seen, 
make a tunnel down the back- 
bone of the skeleton. The 
gray and the white matter in 

the spinal cord is the same as r 

r Fig. 45.— C, Medulla Ob- 

the gray and the white matter longata. 

, 1 • ,i 1 i A, Cerebrum; B, Cerebellum; 

found in the brain, and its D> D> Sp inai Cord. 




IDS OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

substance is so soft that it needs protection along 
the whole of its course. Accordingly we find that 
the bones are so arranged as to shield this substance 
from injury in the same way as the brain is pro- 
tected by the skull. 

ii. Arrangement of Spinal Nerves. — The spinal 
nerves, thirty-one pairs in number (Fig. 46), spring 
from each side of the cord by two roots, an anterior 
or front, and a posterior or back root. From these 




Fig. 46. — Section of Spinal Cord, with Roots of Spinal 

Nerves. 

spinal nerves other nerves branch out, growing 
smaller and smaller, to the most remote parts of the 
body. Athough where these nerves end they are 
finer than a hair and there are so many of them that 
they never have been counted, it is likely that each 
one goes from its origin in the brain or elsewhere 
directly to the part it is intended to protect, because 
we always locate or feel the pain in the part which 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 1 69 

has been injured. The message is never carried in- 
correctly. 

\2. The Sympathetic System.— The nerves of the 
sympathetic system control the action of the stom- 
ach, intestines, heart, blood-vessels, lungs, and some 
other organs. This unconscious action of the nerves 
branching from the spinal cord is known as the 
reflex action of the cord. 

13. The Uses of Reflex Action. — Reflex action is 
important in both our sleeping and our waking 
hours. It is an unseen protector, never weary and 
never needing sleep. It watches over us when our 
brains need rest, and keeps us from danger or death. 
The work of digestion is constantly going on though 
we never think of it ; our hearts are beating while 
we are asleep as well as while we are awake; and 
we breathe without troubling ourselves about it. All 
these movements are caused by reflex action, and 
our brain is thus saved a vast amount of work. If 
we had to think about all these things, we should 
soon be tired of life, or we should forget them and 
should die. Our brains could have no rest, for we 
could never sleep. We should always have to be on 
the watch to keep our bodies alive. 

14. The Health of the Nervous System. — We can- 
not prize too highly the powers given to us by the 



170 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

nerves. Since we receive through them such won- 
derful things, is there not something we can do for 
them? Can we selfishly accept their gifts and deny 
them what they need? It is not possible. We can 
prove our right to them by the care we take of them. 
The body is a wonderful possession, and the nervous 
system is its most wonderful part. 

15. The body needs food and drink for its nourish- 
ment: then the nerves, being a part of the body, 
need nourishment. Every nerve, even the smallest, 
needs nourishment. Even the nerves of the teeth 
need it as well as all other nerves. We know what 
kinds of food and drink are best suited to give health 
and strength to the body ; so we know one way in 
which w r e can make some return to the nerves: 
we can feed them well. 

16. The body needs oxygen: then the nerves 
need oxygen. We are doing them an injury when 
we remain in poorly-ventilated rooms. Nothing is 
better for the nerves than healthful exercise in the 
open air. It gives brightness to the eye, color to the 
skin, freshness to the entire system, and cheerful- 
ness of spirit, that nothing else can give, and the 
nerves of the eye, skin, bones, muscles, and brain are 
strengthened in consequence. Whatever strengthens 
any part of the body strengthens the nerves of that 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM I/I 

part. Whatever weakens any part of the body 
weakens the nerves of that part. 

17. We Need Sleep. — During sleep the process of 
nourishing the body, of supplying material for 
growth, of resting the spinal column, of resting and 
strengthening the nervous system, is carried out 
most completely. When we sit up late at night we 
are " burning our candle at both ends," as the saying 
is; because we lose more strength, of both body and 
nerves, than we would lose otherwise, and we allow 
less time in which to make up this loss. 

18. Grown people need from eight to ten hours 
of sleep each night, and young people need even 
more. And here we should like to enter a plea 
for single beds. Two comfortable single beds 
need not take up much more room than one double 
bed ; but the comfort and health afforded by the 
single beds cannot be measured. It is never wise 
for children to sleep with elderly people. 

19. Conditions affecting the Nerves. — In addition 
to food, oxygen, and sleep, the nerves need many 
other things. To be hungry, to breathe impure air, 
to go without sleep, will make people restless and 
irritable. To be well fed, to breathe pure air, to 
have sufficient sleep, will or should make people 
happier and more helpful. 



172 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

Among other things that help to keep the nervous 
system healthy are cheerfulness, temperance, the 
love of music, pictures and flowers, good reading 
and industry, and loving thoughts for our family 
and friends. 

20. Cheerfulness rests the one who possesses it, 
and all the people about him. Temperance in eat- 
ing, drinking, working, playing, — in short, temper- 
ance in all things, — is necessary for nervous strength. 
The love of anything beautiful, whether it appeals 
to the ear, eye, or mind, is equally necessary. 

We know of no better way to keep the nerves 
well and strong than to have such loving, friendly 
thoughts of those around us that we cannot wrong 
them in deed or word or thought, and that for 
their happiness, as well as for our own, we will take 
the most intelligent care of our bodies and our 
nervous systems. 

21. Opium. — Opium is the thickened juice of the 
poppy-plant (Fig. 47) of India, and forms the chief 
ingredient of the soothing syrups, laudanum, and 
paregoric. The effect of opium upon the nerves is 
particularly injurious, and it should never be used 
except under the direction of a competent physician. 
The use of opium for relieving pain has been 
known fpr hundreds of years ; but the danger in it 



THE NER J 'O L \s S YSTEM 



171 



is very great. An overdose would produce 1 death, 
and small doses are never 
safe. It weakens the body 
and mind, and it has a 
decidedly injurious effect 
upon that part of the 
mind known as the " will." 
Never take any drug" to 
prodifce sleep or to sud- 
denly relieve a headache, 
unless your physician ad- 
vises it. Sometimes head- 
aches produced by nervous 
excitement are cured by 
powders or liquids that 
deaden the nerve-power or cause the heart to beat 
more slowly. This is always dangerous. 

22. Tobacco. — Tobacco injures the entire nervous 
system. "Tobacco is never necessary ; it is always 
hurtful to boys and young men, to weak people and 
those disposed to consumption." The use of to- 
bacco in the United States Naval and Military 
Academies is forbidden on the ground that it is at- 
tended with serious damage to health. The nerves 
are weakened by it, and the hand in particular lacks 
steadiness on that account. A teacher of drawing, 




Fig. 47. — The Poppy-plant. 



174 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

of fourteen years' experience, has said that he can 
always tell from the character of the lines in the 
drawing whether or not the pupils use tobacco. 

23. Alcohol. — Very serious changes in the brain 
result from the constant use of alcohol. The brain 
becomes harder and tougher than is natural, certain 
parts of it grow smaller, the blood-vessels become 
weakened, and serious brain diseases result. Al- 
cohol produces also a kind of insanity. This* is in- 
dicated by loss of memory, inability to reason, a 
lack of judgment, and peculiar ideas regarding 
truth and justice, right and wrong conduct. If 
alcohol is used constantly it causes a thirst for 
strong drink that knows no bounds and is very 
rarely cured : this is called thirst-madness. 

The direct result of taking alcohol is seen in the 
loss of self-control. There is the possibility of los- 
ing the nerve-power at any time when one has con- 
tracted the habit of drink. The habitual use of 
alcohol is positive injury to the intelligence, strength 
of mind, and moral character. If you never become 
a victim to the habit of drink you will never have 
cause to feel that your sons or daughters have been 
unable to resist its influence because they inherited 
from you a taste for it. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 175 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XII 

1. What are growing powers? 

2. What fluid carries nourishment to all parts of plants and 
trees ? 

3. In what respect are human heings superior to plants and 
animals ? 

4. Repeat the stanza about the flowers. 

5. How do we sometimes describe the intelligence of ani- 
mals ? 

6. What organs give us the power of feeling, motion, and 
thought ? 

7. What are the two systems or classes of nerves? De- 
scribe them. 

8. Of what does the nervous system consist? 

9. Into what other two classes are the nerves divided ? 

10. Describe the brain. 

11. What is its weight ? 

12. What and where is the cerebrum ? 

13. What is the color of the substance of the outside of the 
cerebrum ? The inside? 

14. Where and what is the cerebellum ? 

15. Of what is it composed ? 

16. How does the cerebellum compare in size with the cere- 
brum ? 

17. What is the medulla oblongata? 

18. What are the nerves like that are given off in the brain ? 

19. What is meant by the spinal cord? 

20. How many pairs of spinal nerves are there ? 

21. To what parts of the body are nerves carried ? 

22. What does the sympathetic system of nerves control ? 

23. What is meant by the reflex action of the spinal cord ? 

24. What are its uses? 

25. W 7 hat is the most wonderful part of the body ? 

26. How do we know that the nerves need nourishment? 
Do all nerves need it ? 

27. How do we know that the nerves need oxygen ? 



176 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

28. What effect is produced upon the nerves by exercise in 
the open air ? 

29. Repeat the last two sentences in paragraph 16. 

30. What is carried out most completely in sleep ? 

31. When do we " burn our candle at both ends " ? Why ? 

32. How much sleep do young people need? 

33. Why should single beds be used? 

34. Should children sleep with elderly people ? 

35. What will make people irritable ? 

36. What should make them happy and useful ? 

37. Mention several things that contribute to the health of 
the nervous system. 

38. In what should we be temperate? 

39. What can you say of anything beautiful ? 

40. What is a most excellent way in which to keep the 
nerves well and strong ? 

41. Why should we take good care of the nervous system ? 

42. How, and how only, should opium be used ? 

43. How long have people known of its power to relieve 
pain ? 

44. What is the danger of an overdose ? 

45. In what way is opium injurious ? 

46. What advice is given regarding drugs? What is always 
dangerous ? 

47. What effect has tobacco upon the entire nervous system ? 

48. To whom is it always hurtful ? 

49. Where is its use forbidden ? Why? 

50. What has been the experience of a drawing-teacher? 

51. What effect has alcohol upon the brain ? 

52. What are some of the indications of insanity produced 
by alcohol ? 

53. What is thirst-madness ? 

54. What direct result of taking alcohol is seen ? 

55. To what is the habitual use of alcohol a positive injury ? 

56. From what danger may you save your sons and daugh- 
ters if you never form the habit of drink? 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE SPECIAL SENSES 

i. The Brain is the Organ of Sensation. — We have 
learned that the nerves, going from the brain to the 
fingers, toes, and to the surface of the body gener- 
ally, give us the sense of feeling, or sensation, in those 
parts. If a nerve ending in the skin should be cut, 
so that it could not convey messages to the brain, 
we might be pinched or pricked with a pin over 
the point served by that nerve without feeling pain. 
We say that we feel with our fingers, we hear with 
our ears, we taste with our tongues ; the truth is, 
however, that without the brain we should have no 
knowledge of these things. It is the brain that 
feels, tastes, smells, sees, and hears. 

2. Sensation. — The sensibility or feeling in any 
part of the body depends upon the number of nerves 
the part contains. The nails, the hair, and the scarf- 
skin have no nerves, so that they may be cut without 
giving us pain. The cutis, or true skin, which is, as 
we have learned, under the scarf-skin, is very sensi- 



1/5 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

tive, because it is full of nerves ; but the muscles, 
cartilage, and bone have very little feeling. When 
any one is under the influence of laughing-gas, ether, 
or chloroform, a tooth can be drawn, a finger taken 
off, a broken bone can be set, without causing pain. 
Why ? Not because there are no nerves in the 
tooth, finger, or flesh about the broken bone, but 
because the brain is put to sleep or made to lose its 
knowledge of sensation. The different parts send 
their messages to the brain as usual, but it cannot 
receive them ; consequently no pain or sensation is 
felt. 

3. The Uses of Pain. — We all know what pain is, 
for we have felt it. Grown persons, as well as boys 
and girls, often get impatient because they have to 
bear it. Have we ever thought that pain, although 
so hard to bear, has its uses? It acts as a protection 
to the body. If we hold the hand too near the fire, 
the pain we feel warns us to take it away at once. 
If it were not for the sense of pain, the hand might 
be kept there until it was severely burned, and we 
should not know it. Pain also warns us not to eat 
food that we cannot digest. If we do not heed the 
warning, we deserve to suffer. Persons stupefied 
by drink are often severely burned, or- even burned 
to death, while under its influence. 



THE SPECIAL SENSES 1 79 

4. Special Senses. -Besides the- feeling of pain just 
described, and which is common to all parts oi the 

body, there arc other feelings which arc called special 
senses. There arc five of them — touch, taste, smell, 
sight, and hearing. Special organs are furnished 
for them: the hands lor touching, the tongue for 
tasting, the nose for smelling, the eye for seeing, and 
the ear for hearing. No one ol these organs can do 
anything but its own work. 

5. Touch. — The sense of touch is given to the 
whole surface of the body, but is most delicate in 
the hands, and particularly in the tips of the fingers. 
If we pass our fingers over an object, even if we do 
not'see it, we have an idea at once of its size, shape, 
and form, and could tell it by the touch at any other 
time. In the blind this sense of touch is often edu- 
cated to such a degree that it almost takes the place 
of sight. They can read by passing the fingers rap- 
idly over raised letters, and by feeling a face will 
know it again, as well as we do by seeing it. 

6. The blind are almost always very gentle, 
patient, and painstaking. They study reading, 
spelling, geography, arithmetic, and many other 
branches of learning, as you do, but with vastly 
more work. We once saw a little girl in the blind 
asylum at South Boston, Mass., perform an example 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 



in compound numbers ; and she did it almost as 
quickly as we could hav T e done it ourselves. The 
figures that she used were all at the top of her arith- 
metic-frame, and she could tell by feeling them 
when she had the right ones to bring down. 

7. Dr. Samuel G. Howe was at the head of that 
institution for many years. It is a pleasure to men- 
tion his name. What he did for Laura Bridgman 
has made the whole world his debtor. Laura Bridg- 
man could not see, hear, or speak; yet Dr. Howe 
taught her how to express her thoughts, and how to 
learn the thoughts of others. He did this entirely 
through the sense of touch. Helen Kellar has been 
taught in the same manner and at the same institu- 
tion. 

8. The sense of touch is almost always correct, 




Fig. 48. 

but it is sometimes misleading. If we cross the first 
two finders of one hand and then roll a marble or 



THE SPECIAL SENSES I S I 

some small object with the tips ol them (sec Fig.48), 

it will seem as it two marbles are being rolled. If 
the fingers crossed in this way are applied to the 

end ot the tongue, two tongues will seem to be felt. 

9. The Organ of Taste. — The tongue is the spe- 
cial organ ot taste, but the back of the mouth also 
possesses this sense. The tongue has a variety of 
muscles. It can move in almost any direction. 
Laura Bridgman used to thread her needle with her 
tongue. 

If you will look at your tongue in a mirror you 
will see that it is rough. This roughness is caused 
bv tiny raised spots which contain the nerves of 
taste. By means of these we can taste and feel 
different substances, and we can tell their tempera- 
ture also. 

10. The Education of the Taste. — Our natural 
tastes are simple. A child is satisfied with his 
plain, wholesome diet until he knows it is possible 
for him to have other food. Can you not remember 
having seen babies or very young children show by 
the faces they made that they did not like certain 
kinds of food when they first tasted them? They 
can learn to like almost anything, however. 

11. Natives of cold countries depend largely upon 
fats and oils as a nourishing and necessary diet. 



1 82 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

People traveling in those countries, although wholly* 
unacquainted with such a diet, grow to like it very 
much as they become used to it. The chief use of 
the sense of taste appears to be as a guide in the 
selection of proper food. The sense of taste can be 
very finely cultivated, as is shown by those who 
become professional " tasters " of tea. 

12. The Nose. — The sense of smell is due to the 
nerves that end in the delicate membrane, or internal 

skin, that lines the 
vV openings or cavities 

k^^_w^^^^^ of tne nose (Fig. 49). 
/m^^M^H^^^^^^-- K ^ ne nose is formed 

/imi ' : v u ' P artl - V ()1 bone and 

plL 1 partly of cartilage, 

\^Pt^-^ N ffi'\ ^ ^^ x ^^ifK V ^ or § r ^ st ^ e ' together 

N & v -*~ " : ^~ " ^x \ l with this covering 

*Y Ny/ ' membrane. The 

Fig. 49. — Section of the Right Nasal upper part of the 

nose is joined to the 
skull by a few small bones. The lower part or tip 
of the nose contains several thin pieces of cartilage 
which enable it to bear heavy blows without break, 
ing. Behind the nose, in the upper and back part 
of the mouth, are two cavities called the nasal cavi- 
ties. These have a delicate lining: called the mucous 



THE SPECIAL SENSES 1 83 

membrane, which is kept moist by a fluid which it, 
ID common with all mucous membranes, secretes. 
When we suffer from a cold in the head this mem- 
brane becomes dry and small, and the sense of smell 
is almost destroyed. 

13. Why we Smell. — The perfume of a flower or 
other substance is caused by tiny particles of it. A 
flower does not melt as snow and ice do, nor does 
it dissolve as sugar does; but a flower is constantly 
giving to the air parts of itself too small for us to 
see, but large enough for us to smell when we kihale 
them with the air through the nose. They touch 
the nerves of smell within the nose, and that is why 
we smell them. 

14. The Sense of Smell. — The sense of smell is 
more acute in some persons than in others. Some 
persons upon entering a room in which there are 
flowers know instantly what the flowers are by 
their perfume. Upon entering a room in which a 
person is ill a physician can sometimes tell the nature 
of the illness by the odor detected about the patient. 
Dogs possess the sense of smell in a very high 
degree, and it can be cultivated so as to be very 
useful. 

15. Uses of Smell. — Deer and other animals, when 
they are hunted by dogs, sometimes put their pur- 



Ib4 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

suers off the scent by going into a stream of water, 
and following the stream for a long distance. They 
appear to know that the hounds will be unable to 
scent their course in running water, and how far 
they must keep in the stream before it is safe to 
take to the woods again. Smell, like taste, helps us 
to select proper food and to avoid that which is 
spoiled and unfit to be eaten. It also warns us not 
to breathe gases and vapors that are unfit to be 
taken into the lungs, and which we might breathe 
did not the sense of smell warn us to avoid them. 

1 6. SIGHT. — Sight is the special sense by which we 
know the color, form, size, and other properties of 
bodies. Touch, taste, and smell bring us in direct 
contact with the bodies which we perceive through 
those senses. With sight it is different. The objects 
made known to us through the eye should be re- 
moved from it a few inches at least. The power of 
sight is so wonderfully perfect, however, that we 
can see with equal ease objects only a few inches 
away, as well as those so far removed that the dis- 
tance cannot be calculated. While we should not 
overlook the wonders and beauties immediately 
near us, one of the most inspiring uses of sight is its 
employment in the study of the stars. 

17. The Eye. — The eye is the organ of sight. The 



THE SPECIAL SENSES 



I8 5 



closeness oi the eye to the brain and the important 
part it performs in giving expression to the feelings, 
such as sympathy, friendliness, and affection, have 
given it the name of " the window of the soul." 




Fig. 50. — Brain and Eyeball. 
The expression of a person's eye is often more to be 
trusted or distrusted than his words or tone. By a 
wonderful provision of the same Mind that planned 
every part of the body we are given two eyes. It 
not unfrequently happens that one eye may be in- 
jured or lose its sight entirely, w r hile the other will 
remain well and strong. 

18. The Eyeball. — The eyeball, which is a delicate 
organ, is well protected from injury by bony 



1 86 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

sockets or holes in the head. If you place over the 
eye a book one end of which rests on the eye- 
brows, it will be found that no part of the eye is 
touched. The bones project so as to protect it. 
The eyeball is round, except on the front, which 
projects beyond the rest (Fig. 51). Joined to the 




Fig. 51. — Vertical Section of the Eye. (Enlarged.) 



C, The Cornea. 

I, The Iris. 

P, The Pupil. 

L, The Crystalline Lens. 



R, The Retina. 

N, The Optic Nerve. 

DD, The Eyelids. 



back of the eyeball, as the stem is joined to the 
apple, is the optic nerve. 

19. The Retina. — The optic nerve spreads over 
the inner surface of the eve, and is called the retina. 



■JHE SPECIAL SENSES 



I87 



Upon this, pictures of objects looked at are thrown, 
and remain for a few seconds, but gradually fade 
away. A bright light or color looked at for a few 
minutes cannot be lost sight of at once by closing 
the eyes. You seem to see it dimly, but in the same 
form as when your eyes were open. After a little 
time it fades away. The spokes of a rapidly-mov- 
ing carriage-wheel look like a plane surface ; a stick 
lighted at one end and whirled rapidly around, in 
the dark, looks like a ring of fire. 

Some persons cannot tell one color from another. 
When they cannot 
do so they are said 
to be " color-blind." 

It is so important 
that engineers of 
railroad trains should 
not be color-blind 
that their sight is 
examined before they 
are given positions. 

20. The Iris and 
Pupil. — The thin cir- 
cular curtain that 
gives to the eye its color — blue, brown, gray, or 
black — is called the iris (Fig. 52). In the centre of 




Fig. 52. — Front Section of the Eye- 
ball, VIEWED FROM BEHIND, AND 

showing Suspensory Ligament, 
Iris, and Pupil. 



155 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

the iris is a round opening called the pupil. This 
grows larger or smaller as we are in a dark or a 
light room. When we go from a very light to a 
dark room we can see nothing plainly, but as the 
pupil expands, or grows larger, more light enters 
the eye, and we begin to see objects more dis- 
tinctly. 

21. The Cornea. — The front part of the eyeball 
projects somewhat and has for its protection a 
transparent substance in shape like a watch-crystal. 
This is called the cornea, and is the sole window by 
which light enters the eye. In health the cornea is 
beautifully clear and bright, and so thin and delicate 
that, looking straight at it in a mirror, you cannot 
see it in your own eye. But if a person stand 
with the side of his face towards you and you look 
closely at his eye, you can see this little bulging 
window-pane. 

22. Shape of Cornea, and Sight. — The cornea may 
bulge too much. You will see this in some people 
who, when reading a book, find it necessary to hold 
it very much closer to the eye than you do. This 
is because of the too great bulge of the cornea, 
and is one of the causes of near-sightedness. On the 
other hand, if the cornea is too flat, objects that are 
held close to the eye are not seen clearly. A person 



THE SPECIAL SENSES 1 89 

is then said to be far-sighted. In either of these 
cases eve-glasses ought to be used, even for young 
children. 

23. The Crystalline Lens (Fig. 51). — Across the 
front of the eye, just behind the iris, is something 
which looks like a small lemon-drop; it is about a 
quarter of an inch thick, and is called the crystalline 
lens. If von will place a magnify ing-glass at a window 
of a darkened room and hold a piece of paper behind 
it, von will see upon the paper a picture of what is 
going on outside, but the images in the picture will 
be inverted, or upside down (Fig. 53). People will 




Fig. 53. — The Retinal Image. 

be seen to be walking with their heads down and 
their feet up, and houses will seem to be hanging 
from the ground above them, instead of standing on 
it. This is called an inverted image of the objects 
you see. In the same way the rays of light pass 



I go OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

through the crystalline lens, and are brought to- 
gether in a point called the focus, at the surface of 
the retina, and form an inverted picture there. 

24. The Inverted Image. — You will ask, If the im- 
age on the retina is inverted, how does it happen 
that our mind sees it in its right position ? That is 
a question to which there is no satisfactory answer. 
It may be that, as we know our own place upon the 
ground and as we stand upright, we learn to know 
what is the real position of objects, and thus give 
them their true place. 

25. The Eyebrows and Eyelids. — The hairy arches 
just above the eyes, which prevent the perspi- 
ration from running into them and protect them 
from dust, are the eyebrozvs. The movable curtains 
which, when shut, cover the eye entirely are the 
eyelids. The upper lid is larger and more easily 
moved than the lower one. A firm mucous mem- 
brane lines the eyelids, and is so sensitive that the 
smallest bit of sand or dirt in the eye causes a flow 
of tears and a great deal of pain until it is removed. 

26. The Eyelashes. — The hairs which are on the 
edge of the eyelids, and which with the eyelids help 
to protect the eye from dust and other things that 
would injure it, are the eyelashes. The lashes also 
help to regulate the quantity of light that enters 



THE SPECIAL SENSES IQ 1 

the eye. Close to the lashes there are little glands 

which furnish an oil that prevents the lids from 
sticking together when they arc closed in sleep. 
27. The Lachrymal Gland. — At the upper and 

outer side of the orbit is a gland from which the 
tears come, and which 
is called the lach-ry-mal 
gland (Fig-. 54). The 
tears keep the eyeball 
moist and clean, be- 
cause they constantly 
pass across it. When 
we get anything in the 
eye which makes the 
tears run 




Fig. 54. — Front View of Right 
Eve. (Natural size.) 



, 1. The Lachrymal or Tear Gland, 

W r e Keep lying beneath the upper eyelid. 

hlowino- the nose This 2> The Nasal Duct is shown by the 
mow ing tne nose. 1 nis dotted line The * marks the orifice 

is because the tears in the lower lid. 

1 he central black spot is the pupil; 
have passed through surrounding it is the iris. 

by a little pipe called the nasal duct. The moisture 
that is not needed for the eyes is carried off by this 
duct. When we are excited or grieved the tears 
sometimes overflow the lower eyelid. 

28. Care of the Eyes. — Many people are very 
careless in using the eyes. They read or sew with- 
out having light enough to see plainly what they are 
doing. They read too fine print, or read so long- 



192 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

that their eyes become red and painful. They injure 
their eyes by reading in bed, when they ought to be 
asleep. We should never read by moonlight or 
firelight. The light should not shine directly upon 
the eyes when we are reading or sewing. If a shade 
is not worn, we should sit with the back to the light 
so that it falls upon the book or the work, and 
not upon the eyes. If the eyes begin to pain us, it 
is best to rest them. By neglecting to do this per- 
sons have had trouble with their eyes all their lives, 
and some have even become blind. 

29. Hearing. — When we have thrown a stone into 
smooth water, we have seen a circular wave set in 
motion from the point where the stone struck the 
water, and have watched it growing gradually larger. 
Somewhat like this is the wave of motion in the air. 
If we strike a bell, the air about it is set in motion. 
This motion extends to the air beyond it, until at 
last it reaches the ear and sound is heard. Sound is 
an impression made upon the ear by the vibration 
of the air caused by a moving body. Hearing is the 
special sense by which we are made acquainted with 
sound. 

30. Solids Convey Sound. — Solid substances conyey 
sounds more distinctly than they are conveyed by 
the air. You will find this to be true if you place 



THE SPECIAL SENSES 1 93 

your car at one end of a long beam, and let one of 
your playmates scratch the other end with a pin. 
You will hear the scratching very plainly. 

The Indians by putting their ears to the ground 
can hear a troop of horsemen coming, and can tell 
the difference between their tread and that of a herd 
of buffaloes, although they are far out of sight. 

31. Air Necessary to Sound.— Sound cannot be 
produced when there is no air. If all the air be 
pumped out of a tube or jar and we try to ring a bell 
in it, the clapper will move, but we can hear no 
sound. If the air be let in again, the bell will ring 
clearly. How thankful we should be that we can 
see the faces of our friends and hear their voices ! 
If both sight and hearing were taken from us, how 
great would be our loss ! 

32. The Ear. — In order to study the organ of hear- 
ing, it is necessary to divide the ear into three parts 
— the outer, the middle, and the inner ear (Fig. 55). 
The outer ear is the part we see. It is a beautifully 
formed plate oi cartilage covered with skin, and is 
somewhat trumpet-shaped, so that it can collect 
sounds and direct them inward. There is a little 
tube an inch and a quarter long, which connects the 
outer with the middle ear, and across the lower end 
of the tube a thin membrane is stretched, like the 



194 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 



head of a drum, which divides the outer from the 
middle ear. 

33. The Eab-drum. — This membrane is so thin and 
delicate that it can be easily broken, and if broken 
the hearing will be injured. The lining membrane 
of this tube has little glands, which secrete a yellow, 




Fig. 55.— The Ear and its Different Parts. 
A, Diagram of the Ear. 
a, b, Outer Ear. d, Middle Ear. 

c, The Tympanum. e, Inner Ear. 

B to B'", Bones of the Middle Ear (magnified). 
C, The Labyrinth, or Internal Ear (highly magnified). 

bitter substance, called " ear-wax," which is a protec- 
tion against such small insects as are liable to find 
their way into the outer ear. The middle ear is a 
small cavity about a quarter of an inch across and 
half an inch long (Fig. 55). From the peculiar ar 



THE SPECIAL SENSES 



'95 



rangement of its different parts it is called the tytiu 
pauiofi, or drum of the ear. The thin membrane that 
separates it from the outer ear is the drum-head. 
This membrane is very thin and clastic, so that every 
wave of sound that touches it causes it to vibrate, as 
a drum-head vibrates when it is struck. 




Fig. 56. — Section of the Right Ear. 

A, The Outer Ear. E, Incus, or Anvil. 

B, Auditory Canal. M, Malleus, or Mallet. 

C, Membrane of the Drum I, Eustachian Tube. 

(the lower half). G, Semicircular Canals. 

D, A Small Muscle. H, Cochlea, or Snail's Shell. 

34. The Middle Ear. — Within this drum, and 
stretched across it, are three tiny little bones, the 



196 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

mallet, anvil, and stirrup. Small as these bones are, 
they have their muscles, cartilages, and blood-ves- 
sels as nicely arranged as are those in the larger 
bones of the body (Fig. 57). One of these little 
bones is attached to the drumhead, another to the 
opposite side of the drum, while the third swings 
between them. As the waves of sound strike the 
head of the drum, they move these little bones and 
cause the motion to be sent forward to the inner ear. 
The drum contains air, which it receives through 
an opening or narrow canal called the Eustachian 
tube, which opens into the throat. This tube also 
carries off the fluids which form in the drum. 
When the lining membrane of this tube becomes 
thickened, as it does sometimes when we " take 
cold " in the head, these fluids may be locked up 
temporarily, and thus may hinder the waves of 
sound ; when this is the case we are said to be 
" hard of hearing." 

35. The Internal Ear, or Labyrinth. — The inner 
ear is a bony case of tiny, winding chambers and 
spiral tubes hollowed out in the solid bone. From 
its winding shape it is called the labyrinth. These 
passages are lined with a delicate bag of membrane, 
which partly fills the cavity. The bag is filled with 
and also surrounded by a clear fluid in which it 



THE SPECIAL SENSES 1 97 

floats. The fibers of the auditory nerve, which 
passes from the brain to the inner ear, are spread 
out over the hurt surface of this bag. By means 

of this auditory nerve the impression of sound is 
made on the brain. 

36. Care of the Ear. — Great care should be taken 
of the ear if we wish the hearing to be good. Cold 
water should never be put into the ear, and if, after 
bathing, there is water in the ear, we should hold 
the head to one side, so that the water may run out. 
Neglect of these directions may lead to deafness. 
Cold air coming through a crack in the door or 
window into the ear may cause deafness. If it is 
necessary to put anything into the ears or to 
syringe them with water let the water be first 
warmed. It is dangerous to put cotton into the 
ears to protect them from cold. The ear is only 
made more sensitive by it, and the hearing is in- 
jured. Never put pins or earpicks or anything 
made of wood or metal into the ear tO|get out the 
wax. All such things are likely to do harm. 

37. To Remove Objects from the Ear.— If a for- 
eign body, like a pea, a bean, or a little stone, should 
get into the ear, syringe the ear carefully with 
warm water, turning the head a little to one side. 
The overflowing of the water will usually bring it 



OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 



out. If a fly or some other insect should get into 
the ear, fill the ear with oil or soap-suds that have 
first been warmed, in order to kill it. Then turn 
the side of the head down. The insect and the 
fluid will usually come out together. If they do 
not, syringe the ear as mentioned above. It is well 
to remember this direction, as it may be of service. 

38. Tobacco and Alcohol. — Tobacco and alcohol 
are harmful to each of the special senses. The sense 




Fig. 57. 



-Showing the Internal Mechanism of the Ear 
(greatly enlarged). 



of touch is rendered less fine, less susceptible to 
delicacy in every way, less accurate in the informa- 
tion which it sends to the brain, whenever tobacco 



THE SPECIAL SENSES 1 99 

and alcohol arc used excessively. Where fine work- 
manship or the skilled use of the hand is desired, 
tobacco and alcohol arc particularly harmful. 

39. Narcotics and Taste. — The sense of taste is 
seriously injured by these two narcotics. The food 
loses its relish, and many of its delicate flavors arc 
lost entirely by the effect produced upon the taste 
by these two poisons. As you have already learned, 
they cause an unnatural thirst which weakens the 
usefulness of the saliva, and a portion of the taste of 
food is lost in that way. 

40. Tobacco and Sense of Smell. — The sense of 
smell is permanently injured by the use of tobacco. 
People may say, or they may think, that they can 
appreciate as delicate odors after the lining of the 
nose has been injured by tobacco-smoke as they 
could before ; but such is not the case. It is posi- 
tively harmful to force tobacco-smoke through the 
nose. It dries the lining of the nose, irritates it, 
and its ill-effects extend into all of the nasal cavities. 

41. Injury to Hearing and Sight. — Aside from in- 
juring the special nerves of taste and smell, tobacco 
frequently produces painful and fatal diseases of the 
mouth, throat, nose, and ears. Tobacco affects the 
ears by causing an irritation of the Eustachian tubes. 
The effect of tobacco and alcohol upon the sight is 



200 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

much more serious than people generally suppose. 
Excessive smoking produces at times sudden blind- 
ness. 

42. An Instance. — Not long ago a young man 
was suddenly stricken blind in one of the principal 
streets of a large city. The sudden shock and ter- 
rible pain occasioned by the loss of his sight caused 
him to fall to the sidewalk in an unconscious condi- 
tion. Assistance was summoned, and he was taken 
to an eye-and-ear hospital, where he received most 
intelligent treatment by the physicians and surgeons 
in charge. He was then taken to his home, where 
the directions for his care were faithfully carried 
out. Within a week or ten days his sight was re- 
stored, but during that period his agony of body 
and mind was terrible. And all of this suffering 
was produced by the excessive use of tobacco. 

43. Many men, after having smoked three or four 
cigars or pipes in succession, within two or three 
hours for instance, have been afflicted with the so- 
called " double sight" or " double vision." By seek- 
ing the fresh air their normal sight has been re- 
stored, but in some cases not until the stomach has 
come to the rescue and, by ejecting the food which 
the excessive smoking has rendered it impossible for 
the stomach to digest, has made it possible for 



THE SPECIAL SENSES 201 

the blood to flow unhindered through the blood- 
vessels, carrying with it the oxygen so necessary to 
the nerves of the eye, and which it must receive 
before this " double vision " can pass away. 

44. The effect of alcohol is no less dangerous. 
Both tobacco and alcohol can produce this double 
vision. The sight is always more or less imperfect 
when alcohol is taken habitually and in large quanti- 
ties. The hearing also is rendered less acute by the 
use of narcotics. The inaccuracy of sight and the 
indistinctness of hearing often go hand-in-hand when 
either tobacco or alcohol is used excessively. 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XIII 

1. What is the relation of the brain to the special senses ? 

2. What parts of the body have no nerves ? 

3. What parts of the body have very little feeling ? 

4. Why do we not feel pain when under the influence of 
laughing-gas, ether, and chloroform ? 

5. How does pain protect the body? 

6. What are the special senses ? 

7. What organs are furnished for them ? 

8. Where is the sense of touch most delicate ? 

9. What information is given to us by the sense of touch ? 

10. In what people is this sense often highly educated? 

1 1. What are the characteristics of the blind ? 

12. Who was Dr. Samuel G. Howe? 

13. What did Dr. Howe teach Laura Bridgman ? 

14. How did Dr. Howe teach her to do these things? Why? 



202 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

15. What is said of, Helen Kellar? 

16. Is the sense of touch always correct ? 

17. What is the special organ of taste ? What else possesses 
this faculty ? 

18. What motions has the tongue ? 

19. What causes the roughness of the tongue? 

20. How are the nerves of the tongue useful to us? 

21. What are our natural tastes? 

22. How long does a child remain satisfied with a plain and 
wholesome diet ? 

23. What diet do natives of cold countries need? Can you 
tell why ? 

24. What is the chief use of the sense of taste ? 

25. To what is due the sense of smell ? 

26. Of what is the nose formed ? 

27. Why is the sense of smell destroyed when we have a 
cold ? 

28. What are the uses of the sense of smell ? 

29. What is sight? 

30. What is one way in which sight is different from touch, 
taste, or smell ? 

31. What is the organ of sight? How is it protected ? 

32. To what part of the eye is the optic nerve joined? 

33. What is the retina ? 

34. What is color-blindness ? 

35. What is the iris ? What is the pupil ? 

36. When does the pupil grow larger? Smaller? 

37. What is the cornea ? 

38. What causes near-sightedness ? Far-sight ? 

39. What is the crystalline lens ? 

40. Is the picture of people, animals, and objects right side 
up or upside down in our eyes ? 

41. Why do we think they are in their correct positions? 

42. Of what use are the eyebrows ? The eyelids ? 

43. What are the uses of the eyelashes ? 



THE SPECIAL SENSES 203 

44. What is the lachrymal gland ? 

45. Of what use are the tears ? 

46. What and where is the nasal duct? 

47. Mention several things to be avoided in the care of the 
eyes. 

48. Where should the light be when we are reading or sew- 
ing? 

49. What is sound ? 

50. What is hearing? 

51. How is sound carried more distinctly, by solid substances 
or by the air? 

52. What is necessary to sound ? 

53. What is the organ of hearing ? What are the three parts 
of the ear ? 

54. Describe the outer ear. 

55. What is the ear-drum ? 

56. What is the middle ear? 

57. What is the tympanum ? 

58. What three bones are in the middle ear ? 

59. How does air get into the middle ear ? Where is it ? 

60. What sometimes causes a partial loss of hearing? 

61. What is the name of the inner ear? 

62. In which ear are the nerves of hearing ? 

63. What things should be avoided if we wish our hearing to 
be good ? 

64. How can objects be easily removed from the ear ? 

65. Should anything cold, such as water, soap-suds, or oil, 
ever be put into the ear ? 

66. How do tobacco and alcohol affect the sense of touch ? 

67. How do they affect the sense of taste ? 

68. Is the sense of smell as keen after the lining of the nose 
has been injured by tobacco-smoke ? 

69. How does tobacco-smoke injure the lining of the nose ? 

70. What painful and fatal diseases does tobacco sometimes 
cause ? 



204 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

71. What has excessive smoking sometimes caused ? 

72. What other effect upon the sight has excessive smoking 
caused ? 

73. Can alcohol produce the same effect ? 

74. What two serious defects often accompany the excessive 
use of tobacco or alcohol ? 



CHAPTER XIV 

IN CONCLUSION 

i. While we do not claim that the care of the 
body is the most important subject of thought, we 
wish all the young people who study this book to 
feel that there are possibilities of usefulness and 
happiness that can only be realized when the body 
and mind are kept strong and well nourished. 
There is a strong feeling among many brave and 
true men and women that children and young peo- 
ple should be thoroughly well informed of the 
ill-effects of alcohol, tobacco, and other narcotics. 
The future glory of the country, the highest de- 
velopment of human life, and the nearest approach 
to moral strength and beauty are attained in avoid- 
ing the use of harmful and poisonous substances. 

2. Alcohol, tobacco, and other narcotics do not 
strengthen, or nourish the body or any of its parts. 
Their ill-effects upon the body as a whole and upon 

its various parts and organs have been fully shown. 

205 



206 OUR WONDERFUL BODIES 

3. " The world is full of beauty when the heart is 
full of love." Has it occurred to you that your 
heart cannot be full of love when you knowingly 
do those things that may prove injurious to you, 
and in so doing destroy your own health and happi- 
ness and that of your parents, family, and friends ? 
Again we are told : 

" How big the human heart ! How much 'twill hold 
Of love ! In it the blissful stream may pour 
Continually, and yet there's room for more." 

Have you ever been too happy ? Have you ever 
done too much for the happiness of others ? 

4. It is a simple matter to take good care of the 
body. It is a serious matter to take poor care of 
the body. In writing this book we have addressed 
ourselves directly to you ; not to your older friends, 
your " grown-up " brothers and sisters, or your pa- 
rents, but to you. Neither do we refer to their past 
nor to your past. We write to you now, asking you 
from to-day to follow the teachings of the truths con- 
tained in this book. 

5. In the preceding chapter we spoke of the special 
senses. They are truly wonderful; but, after all, 
they are only parts of a still more wonderful whole. 
It is indeed wonderful to touch, to smell, to taste, 



IN CONCLUSION 20J 

to see, and to hear, but it is infinitely more wonder- 
ful to think and to live. Would that the study of 
these things might make your thoughts sweeter 
and more helpful, and your lives more tender and 
true! 



APPENDIX 



Poisons and their Antidotes 

Accidents from poisoning are of such frequent occurrence that 
every one should be able to administer the more common antidotes, 
until the services of a physician can be obtained. As many poisons 
bear a close resemblance to articles in common use, no dangerous 
substance should be brought into the household without having the 
word poison plainly written or printed on the label ; and any package, 
box, or vial without a label, if the contents are not positively known, 
should be at once destroyed. 

When a healthy person is taken severely and suddenly ill soon after 
some substance has been swallowed, we may suspect that he has been 
poisoned. In all cases where poison has been taken into the stomach, 
it should be quickly and thoroughly expelled by some active emetic, 
which can be speedily obtained. This maybe accomplished by drink- 
ing a tumblerful of warm water containing either a tablespoonful of 
powdered mustard or of common salt, or two teaspoonfuls of pow- 
dered alum in two tablespoonfuls of syrup. When vomiting has 
already taken place, it should be maintained by copious draughts of 
warm water or mucilaginous drinks, such as gum-water or flaxseed 
tea, and tickling the throat with the finger until there is reason to 
believe that all the poisonous substance has been driven from the 
stomach. 



The following list embraces only the more common poisons, to- 
gether with such antidotes as are usually at hand, to be used until the 
physician arrives. 

Acids. — Hydrochloric acid ; muriatic acid (spirits of salt) ; nitric 
acid (aqua fortis) ; sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol). 

209 



2IO APPENDIX 

Antidote. — An antidote should be given at once to neutralize the 
acid. Strong soapsuds is an efficient remedy, and can always be ob- 
tained. It should be followed by copious draughts of warm water or 
flaxseed tea. Chalk, magnesia, soda, or saleratus (with water) or lime- 
water are the best remedies. When sulphuric acid has been taken, 
water should be given sparingly, because when water unites with this 
acid intense heat is produced. 

Oxalic acid. 

Antidote. — Oxalic acid resembles Epsom salts in appearance, and 
may easily be mistaken for it. The antidotes are magnesia, or chalk 
mixed with water. 

Prussic Acid. — Oil of bitter almonds ; laurel-water; cyanide of po- 
tassium (used in electrotyping). 

Antidote. — Cold douche to the spine. Chlorine-Water, or water 
of ammonia largely diluted, should be given, and the vapor arising 
from them inhaled. 

Alkalies and their Salts. — Ammonia (hartshorn), liquor or water 
of ammonia. Potassa : — caustic potash, strong lye, carbonate of potassa 
(pearlash), nitrate of potassa (saltpeter). 

Antidote. — Give the vegetable acids diluted, as weak vinegar, 
acetic, citric, or tartaric acids dissolved in water. Castor oil, linseed 
oil, and sweet oil may also be used ; they form soaps when mixed 
with the free alkalies, which they thus render harmless. The poison- 
ous effects of saltpeter must be counteracted by taking mucilaginous 
drinks freely, so as to produce vomiting. 

Alcohol. — Brandy, wine ; all spirituous liquors. 

Antidote. — Give as an emetic ground mustard or tartar emetic. 
If the patient cannot swallow, introduce a stomach-pump ; pour cold 
water on the head. 

Gases. — Chlorine, carbonic-acid gas, carbonic oxide, fumes of burning 
charcoal, sulphuretted hydrogen, illuminating or coal gas. 

Antidote. — For poisoning by chlorine, inhale, cautiously, am- 
monia (hartshorn). For the other gases, cold water should be poured 
upon the head, and stimulants cautiously administered; artificial res- 
piration. (See Marshall HalV s Ready Method, page 213.) 

Metals. — Antimony, tartar emetic, wine of antimony, etc. 

Antidote. — If vomiting has not occurred, it should be produced by 



APPENDIX 211 

tickling the threat with the finger or a feather, and the abundant use 

of warm water. Astringent infusions, such as common tea, oak bark, 

and solution of tannin, act as antidotes. 

Arsenic. — White arsenic, Fowler's solution, fly-powder, cobalt, Paris 
etc. 

Antidote. — Produce vomiting at once with a tablespoonful or two 
of powdered mustard in a glass of warm water, or with ipecac. The 
antidote is hydrated peroxide of iron. If Fowler's solution has been 
taken, lime-water must be given. 

Copper. — Acetate of copper (verdigris), sulphate of copper (blue 
vitriol), food cooked in dirty copper vessels, or pickles made green by 
copper. 

Antidote. — Milk or white of eggs, with mucilaginous drinks (flax- 
seed tea, etc.), should be freely given. 

Iron. — Sulphate of iron (copperas), etc. 

Antidote. — Carbonate of soda in some mucilaginous drink, or in 
water, is an excellent antidote. 

Lead. — Acetate of lead (sugar of lead), carbonate of lead (white lead), 
water kept in leaden pipes or vessels, food cooked in vessels glazed with 
lead. 

Antidote. — Induce vomiting with ground mustard or common salt 
in warm water. The antidote for soluble preparations of lead is Ep- 
som salts; for the insoluble forms, sulphuric acid largely diluted. 

Mercury. — Bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate), ammoniated 
?nercury (white precipitate), red oxide of mercury (red precipitate), red 
sulphuret of mercury (vermilion). 

Antidote. — The white of eggs, or wheat flour beaten up with water 
and milk, are the best antidotes. 

Silver. — Nitrate of silver (lunar caustic). 

Antidote. — Give a teaspoonful of common salt in a tumbler of 
water. It decomposes the salts of silver and destroys their activity. 

Zinc. — Sulphate of zinc, etc. (white vitriol). 

Antidote. — The vomiting may be relieved by copious draughts 
of warm water. The antidote is carbonate of soda administered in 
water. 

Narcotic Poisons. — Opium (laudanum, paregoric, salts of morphia, 
Godfrey's cordial, Dalby's carminative, soothing syrup, cholera mixt- 



212 APPENDIX 

ures), aconite, belladonna, hemlock, stramonium, digitalis, tobacco, hyosci- 
amus, nux vomica, strychnine. 

Antidote. — Empty the stomach by the most active emetics, as 
mustard, alum, or sulphate of zinc. The patient should be kept in 
motion, and cold water dashed on the head and shoulders. Strong 
coffee must be given. The physician will use the stomach-pump and 
electricity. In poisoning by nux vomica or strychnine, etc., chloro- 
form or ether should be inhaled to quiet the spasms. 

Irritant Vegetable Poisons. — Croton oil, oil of savine, poke, oil of 
tansy, etc. 

Antidote. — If vomiting has taken place, it may be rendered easier 
by copious draughts of warm water. But if symptoms of insensibility 
have come on without vomiting, it ought to be immediately excited by 
ground mustard mixed with warm water, or some other active emetic, 
and after its operation an active purgative should be given. After ex- 
pelling as much of the poison as possible, strong coffee or vinegar and 
water may be given with advantage. 

Poisonous Fish. — Conger eel, mtissels, crabs, etc. 

Antidote. — Evacuate, as soon as possible, the contents of the 
stomach and bowels by emetics (ground mustard mixed with warm 
water or powdered alum) and castor oil, drinking freely at the same 
time of vinegar and water. Ether, with a few drops of laudanum 
mixed with sugar and water, may afterward be taken freely. 

Poisonous Serpents. — Antidote. — A ligature or handkerchief 
should be applied moderately tight above the bite, and a cupping-glass 
over the wound. The patient should drink freely of alcoholic stimu- 
lants containing a small quantity of ammonia. The physician may 
inject ammonia into the veins. 

Poisonous Insects. — Stings of scorpion, hornet, wasp, bee, etc. 

Antidote. — A piece of rag moistened with a solution of carbolic 
acid may be kept on the affected part until the pain is relieved ; and a 
few drops of carbolic acid may be given frequently in a little water. 
The sting may be removed by making strong pressure around it with 
the barrel of a small watch key. 

Drowning, 

Marshall Hall's "Ready Method" of treatment in asphyxia 
from drowning, chloroform, coal-gas, etc. 



APPENDIX 213 

ISt. Treat (lie patient instantly on the spot, in the opm air, freely 

exposing the face, neck, and (best to the breeze, ex< ept in severe 

weather. 

2d. In cider to clear the throat, place the patient gently bn the face, 
with one wrist under the forehead, that all fluid, and the tongue itself, 
Bay fall forward, and leave the entrance into the windpipe free. 

3d. To excite respiration, turn the patient slightly on his side, and 
apply some irritating or stimulating agent to the nostrils, as vera trine, 
dilute ammonia, etc. 

4th. Make the face warm by brisk friction ; then dash cold water 
upon it. 

5th. If not successful, lose no time ; but, to imitate respiration, place 
the patient on his face, and turn the body gently, but completely, on 
the side, and a little beyond ; then again on the face, and so on, alter- 
nately. Repeat these movements deliberately and perseveringly, fif- 
teen times only in a minute. (When the patient lies on the thorax, this 
cavity is compressed by the weight of the body, and d\rpiration takes 
place. When he is turned on the side, this pressure is removed, and 
z'wspiration occurs.) 

6th. When the prone position is resumed, make a uniform and effi- 
cient pressure along the spine, removing the pressure immediately, 
before rotation on the side. (The pressure augments the ^jrpiration ; 
the rotation commences Aspiration.) Continue these measures. 

7th. Rub the limbs upward, with firm pressure and with energy. 
(The object being to aid the return of venous blood to the heart.) 

8th. Substitute for the patient's wet clothing, if possible, such other 
covering as can be instantly procured, each bystander supplying a 
coat or cloak, etc. Meantime, and from time to time, to excite inspira- 
tion, let the surface of the body be slapped briskly with the hand. 

9th. Rub the body briskly till it is dry and warm, then dash cold 
water upon it, and repeat the rubbing. 

Avoid the immediate removal of the patient, as it involves a dan- 
gerous loss of lime ; also, the use of bellows, or any forcing instru- 
ment ; also, the warm bath, and all rough treatment. 

The Care of the Sick=room 

The sick-room should be bright and airy, and " Sweetness and 
light" its motto. Other things being equal, it is best on one of the 



°) 



214 APPENDIX 

upper floors — in the case of some "catching" disease, on the top 
floor. Let it be on the sunny side of the house. If for any reason 
the light of the sun is temporarily to be avoided — as when the eyes 
are sensitive or have been operated upon — let the light be shut out by 
a proper arrangement of blinds or curtains. The air-supply to be 
breathed by the sick person should be pure. To keep the air pure, 
the room should be aired three times a day, care being taken to pro- 
tect the patient from chill. 

Unless the physician direct differently, one window — that most re- 
mote from the bed — should be open an inch or more both day and 
night, and in all seasons. 

A fire in an open fireplace, except in summer weather, will be a 
great help towards keeping the air pure. 

Take special care that no stationary wash-basin or other sewer-con- 
nected convenience is improperly plumbed, and that sewer-gas cannot 
by any possibility escape into the sick-room. 

The swinging of doors to create a current is not an efficient means 
of ventilation, as it agitates the air of the room without purifying it, 
and often disturbs the patient. 

It should be borne in mind that cold air is not necessarily pure air, 
and that ventilation is not less needed in winter than in warm weather. 
The temperature of the room should not be allowed to vary much 
from 65 F., unless the doctor otherwise directs. 

Sleep is a great necessity to the sick. If a well person slumbers in 
the daytime, it will interfere with his sound repose at night, but with 
the sick this is generally not the case. The more they sleep the more 
favorable are the chances for their recovery : so that it will be readily 
seen how important it is to avoid noise and jar in the sick-room, espe- 
cially if the disease is acute. Bear in mind that even slight noises, as 
the rustling of garments, the creaking of doors, whispering or noisy 
footfalls, may be sufficient to disturb a brain that is rendered sensitive 
by pain or wakefulness. 

The clothing next the skin should be changed more frequently in 
sickness than in health. These changes must be quickly and deftly 
made, and with as little disturbance as possible. 

Under some conditions of disease, the best welfare of the patient is 
accomplished by having two beds in the room instead of one. 



APPENDIX 215 

Let the furniture be as plain ami as free from upholstery afl pos- 
sible : nol many pieces are required. Movable carpets <>r rags are 
better than those that arc permanently laid. Curtains about the win- 
dows an- OUt of place in a sick-room : so are flowering plants and 
birds, as a general rule. Florence Nightingale, however, makes an 
exception in the case of chronic invalids, and consents to the comfort- 
ing influence of a pet bird or two. 

In regard to the admission of visitors and conversation, much will 
depend upon the strength of the patient and the kind of sickness : at 
many times these are to be forbidden, as having a disquieting influ- 
ence. When contagious disease is in the house, the sick-room must 
be avoided by all except those who have the care of the patient, and 
those having this care should avoid coming in contact with the other 
members of the household, especially the children. 

Bear in mind that everything brought in contact with the sick is 
liable to endanger the health of the well. 

No articles in use by the invalid should be removed or used by 
others until thoroughly disinfected : the dishes and spoons should be 
put in boiling water before being taken from the room. The room 
itself should be fumigated with sulphur when the person is removed 
from it. 

Old pieces of muslin, etc., may be used instead of handkerchiefs to 
receive the poisonous discharges from the nose, mouth, and throat. 
These can be destroyed by fire, and thus prevent the danger of con- 
veying the disease to others. 

"Taking the breath " and kissing should be avoided by those in 
attendance upon the case. 

The bottles of medicine and other reminders of illness should, as 
far as convenient, be withdrawn from the view of the sick. 

Such as are to be kept always at hand should be arranged in an 
orderly way upon a tidily-covered bedside table. The sight of a 
siphon-bottle of aerated water is agreeable to most patients; that may 
be kept in the room, but the vessels containing milk, drinking-water, 
etc., should be kept elsewhere. 

Disinfection 

Filth fosters or produces certain diseases; it should therefore be 
removed as soon as possible. When it is difficult to remove it, disin 



2l6 APPENDIX 

fectants come into play, as they have the power to rob it of some of 
its disease- making force. But let it be remembered that disinfection 
is not cure: it is not a substitute for cleanliness and pure air. The 
true cure is the removal of filth; and when our homes are concerned 
in some question of drainage where the filth is out of our sight, it may 
be necessary to consult and employ the plumber or some other artisan. 

It must be borne in mind that the great preventive of disease is clean- 
liness both of person and of surroundings, and that no deodorizer or 
disinfectant will take the place of soap and the scrubbing-brush. Only 
when, for some leason, filth cannot be removed at once disinfectants 
may be used to prevent disease. Among the better known of 
these are carbolic acid and chloride of lime. A cheap disinfectant 
is made by dissolving half a drachm of nitrate of lead in a pint oi- 
more of boiling water. Then dissolve two drachms of common salt in 
a bucket of water; pour the two solutions together and allow the 
sediment to sink. A cloth dipped in this and hung up in a room will 
correct a bad odor promptly, or if the solution be thrown down a 
drain or upon foul-smelling refuse it will have the same effect. 

The room to be purified with sulphur should be made as tight as 
possible, so that no fumes can escape either by window, door, or 
chimney. Put three pounds of sulphur in an iron pot, which should 
not stand upon woodwork or carpet, lest they be burned, but in a 
large pan of ashes, or upon a layer of bricks; on this sulphur pour a 
tablespoonful of alcohol. This is then set on fire, and everybody 
immediately withdraws from the room. The room should remain 
closed ten hours, after which it should be thoroughly aired before it is 
occupied, for the fumes of the sulphur are irritating to the lungs. 

The chemicals above mentioned should be known and labeled as 
poisons. Many persons have been injured, if not killed, by in- 
cautiously or ignorantly drinking those that are of a liquid form. 

Certain diseases are " catching "; they have the power of spreading 
from one person to another, chiefly by the particles that pass off from 
the body of the patient. Among these diseases are smallpox, measles, 
scarlet fever, and diphtheria. The articles that are worn or used by 
the patient become " infected," and they should be disinfected before 
they are used by others. As a rule, of course, a doctor will be called 
in to attend to these diseases. When that is so, follow his directions 



APPENDIX 217 

as to disinfection as well as every other part of the treatment of Un- 
case. For substances that are not injured by being washed, a good 
and 1 heap disinfectant is sulphate of zinc (" white vitriol ") and com- 
mon salt dissolved in water, boiling hot if possible: using eight table- 
spoonfuls of the zinc and four of salt to the gallon of water. This is 
useful for clothing, bed-linen, towels, handkerchiefs, etc. After 
these articles have lain for an hour or two in this solution, they should 
be allowed to stand in boiling water before being washed. Infected 
articles that are of little value should, of course, be destroyed by fire. 

Emergencies 

The life of many a child has been saved by the fire-drill in schools, 
and great good has been done on shipboard by a drilling of the crews. 

If in a building filled with smoke, get down on hands and knees 
and crawl to door or window. 

In a cellar, well, or vat where carbonic acid can collect, the true 
posture is to stand erect. If a candle, on being lowered into a sus- 
pected place, is put out, you may know that there is danger to human 
life. 

Burns and Scalds. — The secret of the best treatment of these in- 
juries is to exclude the air from the wounded surfaces. When they 
are slight, and the skin is not destroyed but merely blistered, prevent 
the displacement of the skin as much as possible. Let the blisters be 
punctured, if necessary, to let out the liquid, and then keep the skin 
in place by cotton cloth or lint, wet with a solution of one teaspoonful 
of carbolic acid in a quart of water, or a strong solution of baking- 
soda. The cloth should be kept wet constantly, but do not irritate 
the wound by taking off the dressing too often. 

Extensive burns are much worse than deep burns. In the former 
case, the outlook is grave and the patient will probably require the 
best aid, both medical and surgical, of some physician. 

Scars after Burns. — If a burn be on the face, neck, or near a joint, 
it is not well to hasten the healing process, on account of the contrac- 
tion that always takes place as the scar is formed. 

When a woman's clothes are on fire she should not be allowed to 
run, but should be rolled up in the nearest woolen article, rug, blanket, 
or coat. 

Illuminating Gas is dangerous in two ways. If it escapes into a 



2l8 APPENDIX 

tightly closed room in sufficient quantities, it causes the death of the 
inmates by suffocation, unless some one from without discovers the 
perilous situation. If not too late, remove the patient into fresh air, 
undo the clothing, dash cold water on the face and neck, and employ 
artificial respiration, as in drowning (see p. 213). Again : If it escapes 
freely into an apartment, it forms an explosive compound by mixing 
with the air. If then a light is unguardedly taken into the place, an 
explosion that may be destructive to life will result. Always thor- 
oughly air any room that has the odor of escaping gas before a light is 
taken in. 

Kerosene is the cause of even more " accidents " than gas. Too 
much care cannot be taken in its use. Buy only that which has been 
tested, but remember that not all that are marked as "safe " are truly 
so. If a responsible oil-man certifies that the oil will not "flash" 
under 140 , it may be regarded as safe if properly used. Lamps 
should be filled only in the daytime. Never attempt to fill a lamp 
that is lighted, and never put kerosene in the stove for the purpose of 
kindling a fire. Very small lamps are dangerous, as also is a lamp 
that has burned a long time and has but very little oil in it. 

Frost-bites. — Keep away from the fire and in a cool room. Rub 
the nose or other part that has been " bitten " with snow or ice-water 
until the blood is again warmed and circulating in the part. Chil- 
blains should not be brought to the fire ; if the skin is unbroken, it 
should be hardened by brushing it over with alcohol having tannin 
in it. 

Cuts. — These, if severe, should be promptly attended by a physi- 
cian, but every one should know how to treat small wounds. Learn 
the difference between the two kinds of bleeding, called "arterial" 
and "venous." Arterial is bright red and comes in jets (or with 
throbs corresponding to the pulse) ; venous is dark colored and flows 
continuously. In the former, press on that side of the wound nearer 
to the heart ; in the latter, on the further side. Or, pressure may be 
made over the wound itself with the fingers ; this may stop the loss of 
blood from small arteries as well as from veins. Loss of blood from 
arteries is apt to be more rapid and dangerous than that from veins, 
and when the cut vessel is a large one, the skill of the surgeon will 
ordinarily be required in order to close the bleeding artery perma- 
nently and securely. 



APPENDIX 219 

It is well, in every household, to have, in some handy and well- 
known place, Some strips of Old muslin and some lint or oakum, a 
bandage or two and some adhesive plaster, a soft sponge, and needles 
and thread in a basket or box by themselves. In this way valuable 

time may be saved in the stanching of blood flowing in consequence 
of some accidental cut or other injury. 

Fits or Convulsions. — These may be trivial or grave. If it is a 
young woman, the attack is probably hysterical and, as a rule, not 
dangerous, and a sprinkle of cold water will bring relief. If the 
patient struggles with regularity of movement, and there is bloody 
froth on the lips, it is a case of epilepsy, and requires a physician's 
attendance. Meanwhile, protect the head from injury by putting a 
pillow or some soft article beneath it ; a cork introduced between the 
teeth will prevent the biting of the tongue. Prevent the person from 
falling or injuring himself, but do not attempt to forcibly hold him 
quiet. 

In children, apply cloths dipped in water to the head ; disturb the 
child as little as possible ; do not use a warm bath until directed by 
the doctor. 

Fainting. — This occurs when the blood is deficient in the brain. 
The proper position, therefore, is upon the back. Let the window be 
opened to admit fresh air ; fanning and the sprinkling of water are 
useful. If the clothing about the chest is tight, let it be loosened. If 
the faint occurs at church or some public gathering, remove the per- 
son promptly to the outer air : for foul air is frequently the cause of 
the trouble. 

Vertigo. — This is "a rush of blood to the brain." The body 
should be placed in the sitting posture, with the head erect. If the 
blood escapes into the brain by reason of the rupture of a blood-vessel 
within it, the case is very grave, and the physician should be sum- 
moned at once. Meanwhile, let the position of the body be as above 
stated. Apoplexy is known, in very many cases, by the helpless con- 
dition of an arm or leg, or both. 

Sunstroke is seldom produced in this climate in persons who have 
not labored too hard. Fatigue and sun-heat are commonly the joint 
causes of sudden prostration in summer ; although " heat-stroke " may 
occur in an artificially heated atmosphere, without exposure to the 
sun. In the tropics, the least possible exertion is put forth by the 



220 APPENDIX 

natives during the midday hours. On very hot days, therefore, avoid 
fatigue and labor in the open air as much as possible. Keep the head 
cool. If any unusual, dizzy feeling comes on, apply cold water to the 
head and neck. If a person falls unconscious and the skin is de- 
cidedly hot and dry, he should be taken to a cool place. If the face 
and head are red and hot, apply ice-water on cloths. If pale, give 
stimulants gradually and use cold water sparingly. 

Shock may be caused by a fall or a blow upon the head or the pit of 
the stomach. It is known by slowing of the pulse and respiration ; 
the face is pale and the skin becomes cool. The head should be 
placed low, some ammonia in water be given, and warmth applied to 
the surface of the body. 

The Home and Health 

The location of the house should be airy, dry, and sunny. 

A certain amount of elevation is necessary in order to secure 
proper drainage. Too much shade must not fall upon the house, as 
sunlight is very necessary to a proper degree of animal vigor. Young 
children, as is well known, especially profit by the tonic influence of 
sunlight. 

The cellar is an important part of the dwelling ; therefore, unless 
care be taken for its ample ventilation, it will be the source from 
which is supplied much of the air breathed in the upper chambers of 
the house. If the cellar is damp the house is liable to become so, 
and if vegetables are stored in the cellar, an especial degree of care is 
needed to ventilate it thoroughly and constantly. 

House-drainage. — An English writer has stated that "the most 
important part of the house is the drains." This, no doubt, sounds 
strangely to the ears of many, who have been brought up to view the 
parlor or drawing-room as the true center of the house, and yet it is 
no foolish saying, when we reflect that with a bad system of drainage 
to a house every dweller therein ' stands in peril of several forms of 
disease that, mild as the cases may be, are a source of anxiety and, 
when severe, too often have a fatal termination. Drain-diseases, 
such as typhoid fever, dysentery, diphtheria, and scarlet fever, often 
destroy entire families. These diseases do not always spring upon a 
home through defective drainage, but when they do they frequently 
show themselves in a very violent form. 

Drainage (as applied to dwellings) consists in conveying away from 



APPENDIX 221 

the house the liquid and solid imparities that would otherwise ac- 
cumulate in or near the dwelling. Waste is a necessary accompani- 
ment of all animal lite, to the preparation and the taking of food, to 
the clothing of the body, to bathing and other simple acts of daily life. 
The waste material of houses tends to decay and to become offensive. 
It must, therefore, not only be put out of sight and smell, but must 
be removed so faraway that it cannot return in the form of dangerous, 
invisible gases of decomposition. 

The best house-drains are made of iron or glazed earthenware, 
carefully selected and well laid. The joints of the pipes should be 
gas-tight. The soil-pipe should be carried up to and through the roof. 
All the waste-pipes from basins, etc., in the rooms should be joined 
in a gas-tight manner to the soil-pipe, and each and every basin and 
other fixture should have a separate trap. What is a trap ? It is a 
device that is designed to retain a certain portion of the water running 
through it — called the "water-seal " — so that the ascent of air or gas, from 
the drain back into the room, is prevented. It " traps " the sewer-gas 
away from us. Whenever a fixture has been used and there is not, 
beyond all doubt, a sufficiency of water to fill the trap, additional water 
should be poured in. Traps are of various sizes and of an infinite 
variety of patterns and patents, and must vary greatly according to 
their situation ; but one thing should be made sure of in their use, 
namely, that they hold not less than two inches of water as a "seal." 

There is at almost all seasons of the year an upward, because 
warmer, current of air through the main pipes. It is therefore better 
to have a fresh-air inlet pipe near the point where the drain leaves the 
house-wall. This helps to prevent the unsealing of traps. It also 
brings about a purer condition of the air in the interior of the system 
of pipes: so useful is this air-current through the soil-pipe that if ap- 
plied there is little danger of the escape of sewer-gas into the living- 
rooms. 

What is sewer-gas or sewer-air? It varies greatly indifferent places 
and at different times. It is not a definite gas, like oxygen, nitrogen, 
etc., but varies in composition, and what is still more worthy of note, 
it varies in its dangerous qualities. It is not always offensive, although 
it is generally so; its odor has been described as being "sweetish and 
sickish." Its dangerous qualities have not yet been determined by 



222 APPENDIX 

chemistry or the microscope, but one practical point may be borne in 
mind, namely, that when a case or cases of contagious disease occur 
in any house along any given line of sewer-pipes, it is best to use dis- 
infectants in the drainage of the other dwellings along the same line 
of sewer. Children should avoid playing over or around the sewer- 
gratings in the streets at all times, and especially when scarlet fever 
and like contagious diseases are known to be in the neighborhood, for 
the exit of sewer-air at these points is always very free, unless it be 
directly after a rainfall. 

One other point must be remembered, that the best-laid system of 
house plumbing is not indestructible. In the course of time defects 
will arise, breaks will occur; for this reason it would be well for every 
householder to have an examination made at intervals of every joint 
and along the whole line of the house connection with the sewer or 
drain. 

It is thought by many that sewer-gas is not found in the country 
because there are no sewers : they have been misled by the word. If 
the words "drain-air " or " filth-gas " had been adopted, the universal 
production of this injurious substance, in close connection with every 
abode of man, wherever located, might have been better understood. 
In country houses there are, perhaps, fewer dangers of contamination 
of the air we breathe by waste products, because there are fewer water- 
closets, wash-basins, sinks, etc., and the rooms are less exposed to 
impure air. 

Drainage in the city is a comparatively easy problem when the city's 
sewers are laid in the streets. In the country it is more difficult, and 
on this account the fewer fixtures or "modern improvements " there 
are in the house the better it will be. There should be no less care 
within the country house, where wastes-pipes are put in, than in the 
city house. The material should be well selected, tightly joined, and 
properly ventilated. The water-closet should be remote from the 
house. Earth closets are better than the ordinary vaults. House- 
waste from kitchen and laundry should be taken to a considerable dis- 
tance from the house, and far away from the well, and either deposited 
in a water-tight cesspool or conveyed away, by a system of subsoil 
drainage-tiles, arranged so as to fertilize some unoccupied plot of 
ground. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

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